¹« ·¨ ÆÀ ÂÛ

 Î©Ô¸¹«Æ½Èç´óË®¹ö¹ö£¬Ê¹¹«ÒåÈç½­ºÓÌÏÌÏ£¡
et revelabitur quasi aqua iudicium et iustitia quasi torrens fortis

 

ûÓÐÕþ¸®µÄÕýÒ壺ÖÐÊÀ¼ÍÅ·ÖÞÉÌÈË·¨Í¥¼°ÆäÏÖ´ú°æ±¾*

²¼Â³Ë¹¡¤L¡¤±¾É­**

Ðìê¿ ÐìêÀ*** Òë

±¾ÎÄÒë×Ô¡¶×Ô·¢Ö®³Ç£ºÑ¡Ôñ¡¢ÉçÇøºÍÊÐÃñÉç»á¡·****£¨David T. Beito, Peter Gordon and Alexander Tabarrok ed.,The Voluntary City: Choice, Community, and Civil Society, University of Michigan Press,2002.£©µÚÁùÕ¡£

±¾ÎÄ·­Òë³ö°æ»ñÃÀ¹ú¶ÀÁ¢Ñо¿ËùºÍ²¼Â³Ë¹¡¤L¡¤±¾É­µÄÊÚȨ¡£

Copyright? 2002 by The Independent Institute

100 Swan Way, Oakland, California 94621-1428 USA; http://www.independent.org; [email protected].

Ä¿´Î

ÖÐÊÀ¼ÍÉÌÈË·¨

ÍõÊÒ·¨¶ÔÉÌÈË·¨µÄÎüÊÕ

ÏÖ´úÉÌÈË·¨

¹ú¼ÊÉÌÈË·¨

ÃÀ¹úÉÌÈË·¨

·ÇÉÌÈ˶ÔÖÙ²ÃÑÝ»¯Ö®Ó°Ïì

ƸÇë·¨¹Ù֮˾·¨

½â¾ö·ÇÉÌʾÀ·×֮˽ÈË·¨Í¥

ÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾ö

¡°ÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾ö¡±°²ÅÅDZÔÚµÄʧ°Ü£ºË½È˲¿ÃÅÒÖ»òÕþ¸®Ö®Ê§°Ü£¿

½áÂÛ

ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬ËùÓз¨Ñ§Ñ§Õß¾ÍÈçºÎʶ±ð·¨ÂÉÀ´Ëµ½Ô»áͬÒâÒÔÏÂÀíÂÛ£ºËüÐëÓÉijÖÖ¾ø¶ÔȨÍþËùÖ§³Ö¡£[1]Òò´ËËûÃÇÒ²Ò»°ã×÷ÈçϼÙÉ裺һÖÖÓÐЧµÄ·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶È²»¿É±ÜÃâµØÐëÓë¹ú¼ÒÇ¿ÖÆÁ¦Ð¯ÊÖ²¢½ø¡£È»¶ø£¬µ±ÔËÓÃÕæÊµµÄÀúÊ·¾­Ñé½øÐмìÑéʱ£¬ÕâÒ»¹ÛµãÈ´²¢·Ç×ÜÇкÏʵ¼Ê¡£ÈËÀàѧ¼ÒºÍÀúʷѧ¼Ò³¤¾ÃÒÔÀ´¾ÍÒÔÎÄÏ×¼ÇÔØÁË´ÓÕ÷·þǰµÄ°®¶ûÀ¼ÊÏ×åµ½±±ÃÀÖÞÓ¡µÚ°²È˲¿Âä¶¼´æÔÚûÓйú¼ÒµÄ·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶È¡£±È½Ï¶øÑÔ£¬Ñ§ÕßÃǶԸüÏÖ´úµÄûÓÐÕþ¸®µÄ·¨ÂÉÖ®ÀýÖ¤¡ª¡ªÉÌ·¨(mercantile law)»òÉÌÈË·¨£¨the ¡°Law Merchant¡±£©¡ª¡ªÖ»¸øÓèÁËÏà¶Ô½ÏÉٵĹØ×¢¡£ÉÌ·¨ÒÔÕâÖÖ»òÄÇÖÖÐÎʽ£¬³ÖÐøÔË×÷ÁËÖÁÉÙһǧÓàÄê¡£

ÖÐÊÀ¼ÍÉÌÈË·¨

ÔÚÅ·ÖÞ£¬ÉÌÈË·¨µÄÐËÆðÖÁÉÙ¿É×·ËÝÖÁ10¡¢11ÊÀ¼Í¡£[2]ÕâһʱÆÚũҵÉú²úÁ¦µÄѸËÙÔö³¤Òâζ×Å£¬ÎªÎ¬ÏµÈËÀàÉú´æ¶øÉú²ú×ã¹»µÄÁ¸Ê³ºÍÒ·þÖ»Ðè¸üÉÙµÄÀͶ¯Á¦¡£ÕâÖÖũҵµÄ·±Èٴ̼¤Á˸ü¸ßˮƽµÄóÒ×£¬²¢Òò´ËΪÈË¿ÚÖиü´ó²¿·ÖÔÚ²»¶Ï³öÏֵijÇÕòÖÐıÉúÌṩÁËеĻú»á¡£¾­¼ÃÉú²úÁ¦Ôö³¤ºÍ³ÇÊÐÈË¿ÚÔö¼ÓµÄ½á¹ûÖ®Ò»£¬ÊÇÖ°ÒµÉÌÈ˵ijöÏÖ£¬´Ó¶ø´Ù½øÁËÅ©²úÆ·ºÍÐÂÐ˳ÇÊÐÖÐÐIJúÆ·¼äµÄóÒ×£¬¶øÕâÓÖΪ¾­¼ÃÉú²úÁ¦Ôö³¤ºÍ³ÇÊÐÈË¿ÚÔö¼Ó×¢ÈëÁ˶¯Á¦¡£ ÕâЩÉÌÈËÏëÍØÕ¹¹ú¼ÊóÒ×£¬µ«¸ß¶ÈµØ·½»¯µÄ·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶È×èµ²ÁËËûÃǵĵÀ·¡£Îª½â¾öÕâÒ»ÎÊÌ⣬һÖÖ¹ú¼Ê»¯µÄÉÌ·¨Öƶȡª¡ªÖÐÊÀ¼ÍÉÌÈË·¨¡ª¡ª±ã¿ªÊ¼·¢Õ¹ºÍÑÝ»¯¡£ÕýÈç¹þÂ޵¡¤²®¶ûÂü£¨Harold Berman£©Ö¸³ö£¬ÔÚÕâһʱÆÚ¡°×÷ΪһÖÖÍêÕûµÄ¡¢²»¶Ï·¢Õ¹µÄÖÆ¶È£¬Ò»ÖÖ·¨ÂÉÌåϵ¡±µÄÉÌ·¨³öÏÖÁË£¬ÔÚ11ÊÀ¼ÍÒÔºó£¬Ëüʵ¼ÊÉϹæÖÆÁËÕû¸öÅ·ÖÞ£¨²¢ÇÒ¾­³£À©Õ¹µ½Å·ÖÞÒÔÍ⣩µÄÉÌÒµ½»Ò×µÄÿ¸ö·½Ãæ¡£[3]

²»ÏóÐí¶àÏÖ´ú·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶È£¬ÉÌÈË·¨µÄ¡°Í³ÖΡ±ÎÞÐèËßÖî¹ú¼ÒÇ¿ÖÆÁ¦¡£ËüÊÇ×Ô·¢²úÉú¡¢×ÔÔ¸½ÓÊܲÃÅС¢ÇÒ×ÔÔ¸Ö´Ðеġ£ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬²»µÃ²»Èç´Ë¡£[4]ÉÌÈË·¨µÄºÏ·¨ÐÔ»ùÓÚÒ»¸ö¸´ÔÓµÄÓÉÉùÓþËùÖ§³ÅµÄ»¥»Ý¡¢×ÔÔ¸µÄ¹ØÏµÍøÂç¡£ÔÚÿһ¸ö³ÇÊÐÖÐÐÄ¡¢Êг¡ºÍóÒ×¼¯ÊУ¬ÉÌÈËÃÇ×齨ÁË×Ô¼ºµÄ·¨Í¥£¬²¢¸ù¾ÝËûÃÇ×Ô¼º²»¶ÏÑÝ»¯µÄ·¨ÂÉÀ´²Ã¾ö¾À·×¡£ÉÌÈ˵Ä˾·¨ÊÇÒ»¸ö²ÎÓëÐ͵Ĺý³Ì¡£·¨¹ÙÃÇ×ÜÊÇ´ÓÏà¹ØµÄÉÌÈËÍÅÌåÖÐÍÆÑ¡³öÀ´µÄÉÌÈË¡£ËûÃÇÊÇÉÌÒµÊÂÎñר¼Ò£¬²¢ÔÚ¸ÃÍÅÌåÖÐÊܵ½¹ã·ºµÄ×ðÖØ¡£ÎÒÃǽñÌìËù¿´µ½µÄÉÌ·¨Ö®»ù´¡£¬±ãÊÇÔÚÕâһʱÆÚÄڵ춨µÄ¡£

À´×ÔÈç´Ë¸´ÔÓ¶àÑù±³¾°£¨¼È°üÀ¨ÎÄ»¯±³¾°Ò²°üÀ¨µØÀí±³¾°£©µÄ³ÉǧÉÏÍòµÄÉÌÈËÃÇ£¬ÈçºÎ²ÅÄܹ»Öƶ¨·¨ÂÉ£¿ÈϿɴËÖÖ·¨ÂɵĸùÔ´ºÎÔÚ£¿»Ø´ð¸ÃÎÊÌâÖ®×î¼Ñ·¾¶£¬ÊÇÒâʶµ½ÉÌ·¨·¢Õ¹ÓëÊг¡·¢Õ¹Ö®¼äµÄƽÐС£ÔÚÈκÎ×ÔÓÉÊг¡Ö®ÖУ¬ÉÌÈËÃǽԽøÐÐ×ÔÔ¸½»Òס£ÉÌÈ˵ÄÉùÓþͨ³£±ãÊÇΨһµÄ¡°±£Ö¤¡±£¨bond£©¡£Êг¡¾ö¶¨Á˲»Í¬ÉÌÆ·µÄ¼ÛÖµ£¬Òò´Ë¡°µÈ¼Û¡±½»»»·½²Å¿ÉÄÜ¡£µÄµÄÈ·È·£¬ÌÈÈôûÓÐÓÉÊг¡¾ö¶¨µÄ¼Û¸ñ£¬µÈ¼ÛµÄ¸ÅÄºõ¾ÍØÑ·¦ÊµÖÊÄÚÈÝ¡£½ø¶ø£¬ÉÌÈËÃÇÔÚÂò·½ÓëÂô·½Ö®¼äƵ·±µØ½øÐнÇɫת»»£¬¹Ê´Ë£¬½»Ò×Ëù²úÉúµÄÒåÎñÊÇ¿ÉÄæµÄ¡£

µ±ÉÌÈ˽ײ㿪ʼÔÚ²»Í¬µÄ³ÇÊÐÖÐÐÄ·¢Õ¹Ê±£¬µØ·½ÐÔÉÌÒµ¹ßÀý£¨ÉÌҵϰ¹ß£©Ò²¿ªÊ¼·¢Õ¹¡£¶ø¹ú¼ÊóÒ×ÔòÒªÇ󵨷½ÐÔϰ¹ßÖ®¼äµÄÖ÷Òª³åͻӦÓèÏû³ý¡£Ëæ×ÅÉÌÈËÃÇ¿ªÊ¼¿çÔ½ÕþÖΡ¢ÎÄ»¯¡¢µØÀí½®½ç½øÐÐÉÌÒµ½»Ò×£¬ËûÃÇÒ²ÔÚÏòÍâ¹úÊг¡Êä³öóÒ×¹ßÀý¡£ËûÃÇ·¢ÏÖÒÑÔÚÐí¶àµØ·½³ÉΪͨÐÐ×÷·¨µÄÄÇЩԭ±¾µØ·½ÐÔ½»Ò×ϰ¹ß£¬³ÉΪÁ˹ú¼ÊÉÌÈË·¨µÄÒ»²¿·Ö¡£½ø¶ø£¬ÔÚ³åÍ»²úÉúÖ®´¦£¬ÄÇЩ֤Ã÷Ϊ×îÓÐЧ´Ù½øÉÌÒµ½»Ò×Ö®¹ßÀýÅż·ÁËһЩ²»ÄÇôÓÐЧµÄ¹ßÀý¡£[5]°éËæ×Źú¼ÊóÒ×µÄÍØÕ¹£¬Ô´ÓÚͳһ¹æÔò¼°ÆäͳһÊÊÓöø²úÉúµÄÀûÒæ£¬Ìæ´úÁË¿ÉÄÜÓÐÀûÓÚÉÙÊý±¾µØÈËµÄÆçÊÓÐÔ¹æÔò¼°²Ã¾öËù´øÀ´µÄÀûÒæ¡£ÕýÈç²®¶ûÂüÖ¸³ö£¬²»³ÙÓÚ12ÊÀ¼Í£¬ÉÌ·¨±ãÒÑÑÝ»¯µ½ÁËÕâÑùÒ»ÖÖˮƽ£¬Íâ¹úÉÌÈËÔÚÓë±¾µØÉÌÈ˵ľÀ·×ÖÐÒѾ­»ñµÃÁËʵÖÊÐԵı£»¤£¬²¢ÇÒ¿ÉÒÔ¡°Ó¦¶ÔµØ·½ÐÔ·¨ÂɺÍϰ¹ßµÄ±ä»¯Äª²â¡±¡£[6]

Õ¼¾Ý¹ú¼ÊÉÌÈË·¨Ö÷Á÷µÄÊÇÄÇЩǿ»¯¶ø·Ç·ÏÆúÉÌÒµ¹ßÀýÖ®·¨ÂÉ¡£Êµ¼ÊÉÏ£¬ËüÃÇÖ§Åä×ÅÉÌÈËÃÇÈ¥×öËûÃÇÒѾ­³ÐŵҪ×öµÄÄÇЩÊÂÇé¡£[7]ÒòΪÈËÃDz»µÃ²»ÔÚijÖÖÌØ¶¨×÷·¨³ÉΪͨÐйßÀý֮ǰ×ÔÔ¸²ÉÈ¡ÕâÖÖ×÷·¨£¨ÈçÇ©¶©Ò»ÏîÆõÔ¼£©£¬ËùÒÔÉÌÈË·¨±ØÐë¿Í¹Û¹«Õý¡£´ÓË«·½ÀûÒæºÍ³É±¾µÄÒâÒå¶øÑÔ£¬»¥»ÝÕýÊǽ»Ò×µÄʵÖÊËùÔÚ¡£Ë«·½µ±ÊÂÈ˽øÐн»Ò×ÊÇÒòΪÿһ·½¶¼Ô¤ÆÚ»ñµÃ±ÈͶÈë¾ßÓиü¸ß¼ÛÖµµÄ¶«Î÷¡£È»¶ø£¬·¢Õ¹ÓÚ11ÊÀ¼ÍÍíÆÚºÍ12ÊÀ¼ÍÔçÆÚ¡¢½ñÌìÈÔΪÈËÃÇËùÀí½âµÄȨÀû»¥»ÝÖ®·¨ÂÉÔ­Ôò£¬Éæ¼°µÄ»¹²»Ö»ÊÇÏ໥½»»»¡£Ëü°üÀ¨ÁËÒ»ÖÖ¹«Æ½½»»»µÄÒòËØ¡£Òò´Ë£¬ÉÌ·¨ÒªÇó½»»»±ØÐë¡°¹«Æ½µØ¡±´ï³É¡£[8]¹«Æ½ÊÇÉÌÈË·¨±Ø±¸Ö®ÌØÕ÷£¬µ±È»£¬×¼È·¶øÑÔÊÇÒòΪËüµÄ¡°È¨Íþ¡±×Ô¶¯µØ²úÉúÓÚ¶Ô»¥»ÝÀûÒæÖ®ÈÏͬ¡£Ã»ÓÐÈË»á×ÔÔ¸ÈÏ¿ÉÒ»ÖÖËûÔ¤ÆÚ²»»á¹«Æ½¶Ô´ýËûµÄ·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶È¡£Ó³ÉäÁËÇ¿µ÷¹«Æ½µÄÉÌÈË·¨Ö®¿Í¹ÛÐÔÓ빫ÕýÐÔ£¬Æä×î¼ÑÖ¤¾Ý¾ÍÔÚÓÚËüΪÈËÃÇÆÕ±é³ÐÈÏ¡£ÕâÒ»µãÒ²ÒòÆä²ÎÓëÐÔ¶ø½øÒ»²½Ç¿»¯¡£

ÉÌÈËÃÇ×齨×Ô¼ºµÄ·¨Í¥²¢¸ù¾ÝËûÃÇ×Ô¼ºµÄ·¨ÂɲÃÅоÀ·×¡£Ê¤Ëß·½ºÍ°ÜËß·½Í¬Ñù¶¼½ÓÊÜ·¨Í¥µÄ²Ã¾ö£¬ÒòΪËûÃÇÈÏ¿ÉÈç´ËÐÐΪµÄ±Ë´ËÀûÒæ¡£·þ´Ó²ÃÅÐÒ²ÓÐÁíÒ»ÏÒò£ºÎªÕû¸öÉÌÈ˹²Í¬ÌåÅųâÖ®Íþв¡£Ò»¸ö¾Ü¾ø½ÓÊÜ·¨Í¥²Ã¾öµÄÉÌÈ˵ÄÉúÒâÊÇ×ö²»³¤¾ÃµÄ£¬ÒòΪËûµÄÉÌÈËͬÐÐÃÇ»ù±¾ÉÏ¿ØÖÆÁËËûµÄÉùÓþ£¬²¢Òò´Ë¿ØÖÆÁËËûµÄ½»Ò×ÄÜÁ¦¡£ÍþÁ®¡¤C¡¤Îé¶ûµÂÀïÆæ£¨William C Wooldridge£©Ö¸³ö£¬¶ÔÉùÓþºÍ¶ÔδÀ´ËùÓн»Ò×µÄDZÔÚµÖÖÆÖ®Íþв¡°Ö¤Ã÷£¬Èç¹ûÓÐʲô²»Í¬µÄ»°£¬ÄǾÍÊDZÈÎïÖÊÇ¿ÖÆÁ¦¸üÓÐЧ¡±¡£[9]È»¶ø£¬ÕâÒ»ÖÆ²Ã£¬¾¡¹Ü¹¹³ÉÒ»ÖÖÕæÊµµÄÍþв£¬µ«²¢²»¾­³£ÐèÒª¡£¡°³ÏʵÐÅÓá±½øÐн»Ò×µÄÉùÓþÖ®¼ÛÖµ£¬À³°º¡¤ÌØÀ­¿ËÂü£¨Leon Trakman£©½âÊ͵À£¬¡°ÄËÊÇÉÌҵЭÒéÖ®ºËÐÄ¡¢»¥»ÝÒÔ¼°ÉÌÒµÖÆ²ÃµÄÍþÐ²Ç¿ÖÆÁËЭÒéµÄÂÄÐС£ÉÌÈËÃÇͨ³£µÄ³Ðŵ¾ßÓоÐÊøÁ¦£¬ÕâÊÇÒòΪËûÃÇ¡®Ô¸Ò⡯½ÓÊܾÐÊø£¬¶ø²¢²»ÊÇÒòΪÓÐʲô·¨ÂÉÇ¿ÖÆËûÃÇÈç´ËÐÐΪ¡£¡±[10]

ÉÌÈËÃǽ¨Á¢ËûÃÇ×Ô¼ºµÄ·¨Í¥Óкü¸¸öÔ­Òò¡£ÆäÒ»£¬¹ú¼Ò·¨Í¨³£²»Í¬ÓÚÉÌÈË·¨£¬Òò´ËÐèÒªÒ»¸öµ¥¶ÀµÄ˾·¨ÌåÖÆ¡£µÚ¶þ¸öÔ­ÒòÊÇÉÌʾÀ·×µÄ½â¾öͨ³£Òª¿¼ÂǸ߶ȼ¼ÊõÐÔµÄÊÂÏî¡£ÔÚ´ËÀà°¸¼þÖУ¬ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥Ê¹ÓÃÌØ¶¨ÉÌÒµÁìÓòµÄר¼ÒÃǵ£Èη¨¹Ù£¬ËûÃDz»ÏóÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºµÄ·¨¹ÙÄÇÑù£¬¾­³£²Ã¾öËûÃÇÒ»ÎÞËùÖªµÄ¾À·×¡£ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥µÄ·¨¹Ù´ÓÏà¹ØÉÌÈËÉçÇø£¨¼¯Õò»ò³ÇÊÐÊг¡£©ÖеÄÉÌÈËÖÐÑ¡ÈΣ¬¶øÆäÖÐÓÐЩÈËÔò×îÖÕרÃÅ´ÓÊÂ˾·¨·þÎñµÄÌṩ¡£[11]

Ò²ÐíÉÌÈË·¨Í¥×î¹ãÊÜÔÞÓþµÄÌØÕ÷ÒÔ¼°ËüÃÇÏà±ÈÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºµÄÓŵ㣬±ãÊÇËüÃǵÄѸËÙÐԺͷÇÕýʽÐÔ¡£[12]ÄǸöʱ´úµÄÉÌÈËÃDz»µÃ²»ÔÚÒ»¸ö³ÇÊлò¼¯ÕòÊг¡Íê³É½»Ò׺óÔÙѸËÙµ½´ïÏÂÒ»¸öÊг¡¡£¾À·×¾Í²»µÃ²»Ñ¸ËÙ½â¾ö£¬ÒÔ±ã¶ÔÉÌÒµÊÂÎñµÄ¸ÉÈÅ×îС»¯¡£ÌÈÈô²»Ê¹ÓöÔÉÌÒµÊÂÏî¼°Àûº¦¹ØÏµ¸ß¶ÈÁ˽âµÄ·¨¹Ù£¬ÔòѸËÙÐԺͷÇÕýʽÐԾͲ»¿ÉÄÜͬµÈ³Ì¶ÈµØÊµÏÖ£¬¶øÎ©ÓÐÕâЩ·¨¹ÙµÄ²ÃÅвŻá»ñµÃÕû¸öÉÌÈ˹²Í¬ÌåµÄ×ðÖØ¡£Òò´Ë£¬²ÎÓë²ÃÅÐÖÆ»òÕßÉçÇø²ÃÅÐÖÆ£¨participatory or communal adjudication£©¹¹³ÉÉÌÈË·¨µÄÒ»Ïî±Ø±¸ÌØÕ÷¡£

¾Ý´Ë£¬ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥ÓëËüÃǵÄÕþ¸®¶ÔÓ¦Îﲻͬ£¬ÔÚÖ¤¾ÝºÍ³ÌÐò¹æÔò·½Ãæ±£³Ö¼ò±ãºÍ·ÇÕýʽ¡£Îª±ÜÃâ²»±ØÒªµÄËßËÏ¡¢³ÙÑÓ¡¢ÒÔ¼°¶ÔÉÌÒµµÄÆäËû¸ÉÈÅ£¬ÉÏËß²»Óè×¼Ðí¡£[13]ͬÑù£¬ËüÃÇÃâÈ´ÁËÈß³¤µÄÐûÊÄ×÷Ö¤£¬µ±Ð­Òé×÷Ϊ֤¾Ýʱͨ³£²»ÒªÇó¹«Ö¤Ö¤Ã÷£»ÈÏ¿Éͨ¹ý·ÇÕýʽ¡°ÊéÃæ¼Ç¼ծÎñ¡±£¨ written obligatory£©·½Ê½×ÔÓÉ×ªÒÆµÄÕ®Îñ£¬ÄÇÊÇÒ»ÖÖÉÌÈËÃÇ×Ô¼º·¢Õ¹µÄ¼ò»¯Õ®Îñ×ªÒÆÖ®³ÌÐò£»´úÀíÈËËäδ¾­ÕýʽÊÚȨµ«½»Ò×ʱÉî˼ÊìÂǵÄÐÐΪµ±ÊôÓÐЧ£»²¢ÇÒ³ÐÈÏδʵ¼Ê½»¸¶µÄËùÓÐȨµÄ×ªÒÆ¡£[14]¾¡¹ÜÔںܶà¹ú¼ÒµÄ·¨ÔºÖÐÕâЩ³ÌÐòͨ³£²»ºÏ·¨£¬µ«ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥»¹ÊǺÁ²»³ÙÒɵزÉÄÉËüÃÇ£¬ÒòΪÕâЩ³ÌÐò´Ù½øÁËÉÌÒµµÄѸËÙÐԺͷÇÐÎʽÐÔ£¬²¢½µµÍÁ˽»Ò׳ɱ¾¡£¾¡¹ÜͬһʱÆÚÕýÔÚ·¢Õ¹µÄ¡¢ÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºÖ´ÐеĹú¼ÒÁ¢·¨µÄÖ§³ÖÕßÃÇ£¬ÒòÆäÀíÐԺͽø²½±¶¸Ð½¾°Á£¬µ«ÊÂʵÊÇ£¬ÉÌÈË·¨Äܹ»Ñ¸ËÙÊÊÓ¦Ò»¸ö²»¶Ï±ä¶¯µÄÉÌÒµÌåÖÆÖ®ÒªÇ󣬶øËüÓÀÔ¶ÎÞ·¨Óë֮ƥµÐ¡£ ¾¡¹ÜÉÌÈË·¨¾ßÓÐÕâЩÓÅÊÆ£¬µ«Î÷Å·ÓëÃÀ¹úµÄÆÕͨ·¨ºÍ´ó½·¨×îÖÕ»¹ÊDz¿·Ö»òÕûÌ嵨ÎüÊÕÁËËü¡£ÎªÊ²Ã´£¿±¾ÎÄÏÂÒ»²¿·Ö½«¼òҪ̽ÌÖÄÇÖÖÎüÊյĹý³Ì¼°½á¹û¡£

ÍõÊÒ·¨¶ÔÉÌÈË·¨µÄÎüÊÕ

12ÊÀ¼Íǰºó£¬Å·ÖÞ¸÷¹úÕþ¸®¿ªÊ¼ÏµÍ³¡°°ä²¼¡±ÉÌÈË·¨ËùÈ·Á¢µÄϰ¹ß¹æÔò¡£[15]¶øÔÚÊ®ËÄÊÀ¼Í£¬Ëæ×Å¡¶ÉÌÈËÏÜÕ¡·(Carta Mercatoria)µÄ·¨µä»¯£¬Ó¢¸ñÀ¼Ò²²»ÀýÍâ¡£¿ÉÊÇ£¬ÉÌÈËÃǼÌÐøÊ¹ÓÃ×ÅËûÃÇ×Ô¼ºµÄ·¨Í¥£¬Òò´Ë£¬Õþ¸®Ò²¿ªÊ¼Öƶ¨ÄÇЩ´ÙʹÉÌÈËÃÇÉÏÍõÊÒ·¨Ôº½øÐÐËßËϵķ¨ÂÉ£¬²¢ÇÒ/»òÕßʹµÃÉÌÈË·¨Í¥²»ÄÇô¾ßÓÐÎüÒýÁ¦¡£ÀýÈçÔÚÓ¢¸ñÀ¼£¬¿ÉÒÔÍÆ²â1353Äê¡¶ÖØÒªÉÌÆ··¨¡·£¨the Statute of the Staple£©ÔÚ14¸öÖ÷ҪóÒ×ÖÐÐĶԡ°ÖØÒª¡±ÉÌÆ·¡ª¡ªÖ÷ÒªÊÇÑò롢Ƥ¸ïºÍǦ¡ª¡ª¸øÓè¡°ÍâµØÉÌÈË¡±±£»¤¡£µ±È»£¬´ËÀà±£»¤ÔÚÉÌÈË·¨ÖÐÔçÒÑ´æÔÚ£¬¹ÊÕâÔںܴó³Ì¶ÈÉϲ»¹ýÊÇϰ¹ßµÄ·¨µä»¯¡£Í¬Ñù£¬¸Ã·¨ÌØ±ð¹æ¶¨£¬Éæ¼°ÕâЩÍâ¹úÉÌÈ˵ľÀ·×¿ÉÒÀÉÌÈË·¨´¦Àí£¬¶ø²»ÒÀ¾ÝÍõÊÒ·¨»òÈκοÉÄÜÊÊÓõijÇÊз¨¡£ÖµµÃ×¢ÒâµÄÊÇ£¬µ±ÊÂÈË»¹¿ÉÏò´ó·¨¹Ù(chancellor)ºÍ»Ê¼Ò·¨ÂɹËÎÊίԱ»á(King¡¯s council)Ìá³öÉÏËߣ¬Òò´Ë£¬ÔÚÉÌ·¨µÄÖ´Ðз½Ãæ¸øÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºÉèÖÃÁËÒ»ÖÖǰËùδÓеŦÄÜ¡£¶øÒ²Ðí¸üÖØÒªµÄÊÇ£¬¸Ã·¨Í¨¹ý´´ÖÆÉÏËߵĿÉÄÜÐÔ£¬Ö¼ÔÚÈõ»¯ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥¼°ÉÌÈË·¨±¾Éí֮ȨÍþ¡£ÉÏËßµÄDZÔÚ¿ÉÄÜÐÔµ¼ÖÂÉÌÈË·¨¿´À´²»ÄÇô¾ßÓоö¶ÏÁ¦¡£µÄÈ·£¬ÒòΪÉÌÈË·¨ÖƶȵÄȨÍþÔÚ²»¶ÏÈõ»¯£¬¹ÊÆÕͨ·¨ÖƶÈÑݱäµÃÏà¶Ô¸üÄÜΪÈËÃÇËù½ÓÊÜ¡£

ÔÚ17ÊÀ¼ÍÒÔǰ£¬¼¸ÖÖÏ໥¾ºÕùµÄ·¨ÔºÌåϵ¹²´æÓÚÓ¢¸ñÀ¼¡£ÆäÖÐÓжÀÁ¢µÄÍõÊÒÆÕͨ·¨Ôº£¨ÀýÈçÆÕͨËßËÏ·¨Í¥[Common Pleas]¡¢Íõ×ù·¨Í¥¡¢Àí²Æ·¨Í¥[Exchequer]£©£¬½Ì»á·¨Í¥£¬ÍõÊÒÌØÈ¨·¨Í¥£¨royal prerogative courts£©ÈçÍõÊÒº£Ê·¨Í¥¡¢ÒÔ¼°ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥µÈ£¬ËüÃDZ˴˾͸÷ÖÖ¾À·×½â¾öÊÂÎñÕ¹¿ª¾ºÕù¡£È»¶ø£¬ÆÕͨ·¨Ôº×îÖÕÔÚ¾ºÕùÖÐÍÑÓ±¶ø³ö¡£ÔÚ¸÷ÖÖÇéÐÎÏÂȡʤµÄ·½Ê½ÊÇÏàËÆµÄ£¬Òò´ËÏÂÎÄÖØµã·ÅÔÚÆÕͨ·¨ÔºÓëÉÌÈË·¨Í¥µÄ¾ºÕùÉÏ£¬²»¹ý±ØÐëÇ¿µ÷ÆäËû·¨ÔºÒ²ÔÚ»ý¼«Ñ°ÕÒÉÌʾÀ·×¡£ ¾¡¹ÜÉÌÈË·¨Í¥Ö±ÖÁ17ÊÀ¼Í³õÈÔ¿ÉÊÜÀíÉÌʾÀ·×£¬µ«³Ð°ìµÄ°¸¼þÒÑÖð½¥×ªÒƵ½¹Ù·½·¨Ôº¡£ÍþÁ®¡¤M¡¤À¼µÂ˹ºÍÀí²éµÂ¡¤A¡¤²¨Ë¹ÄɽÒʾ£¬ÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºÖð½¥´ÓÉÌÈË·¨Í¥ÊÖÖÐÄÃ×ßÁËÔ½À´Ô½¶àµÄ°¸¼þ£¬ÆäÔ­ÒòÔÚÓÚÓ¢¹ú·¨¹Ù¾­¼ÃÉϵÄ×ÔÎÒÀûÒæ£¬ÔÚÄǶÎʱÆÚÆäн½ðÊÕÈëºÜ´ó³Ì¶ÈÉÏÀ´Ô´ÓÚËßËÏ·Ñ¡£[16]Õâ¿ÉÄÜΪÕþ¸®Å¬Á¦ÎüÊÕÉÌÈË·¨Ôö¼ÓÁ˼¤ÀøÒòËØ¡£½ø¶ø£¬ÓÉÓÚÔÚÕâһʱÆÚÉÌÈ˵ÄÈ·¿ÉÒÔÔÚËûÃÇ×Ô¼ºµÄ·¨Í¥ºÍÍõÊÒ·¨Ôº¼ä×ÔÓÉÑ¡Ôñ£¬¹ÊÉÌÈËÃÇÔ½À´Ô½¶àµØÑ¡ÔñÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºÖ®ÊÂʵ£¬Òâζ×ÅÄÇЩ·¨Í¥ÔÚÊÊÓÃÉÌÈË·¨·½Ãæ×öµÃ²»´í¡£À´×Ô˽È˵ÄÉÌÈË·¨Í¥Ö®¾ºÕùÍþвʼÖÕ´æÔÚ£¨¼´Ê¹ÆäȨÍþÔÚijÖ̶ֳÈÓÐËùÏ÷Èõ£©£¬Òò´ËÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºÈôÏë»ñµÃÉÌÊÂÒµÎñ£¬¾Í²»µÃ²»ÒÔÉÌÈËÃÇ¿´ÆðÀ´Êʵ±µÄ·½Ê½À´Ö´Ðз¨ÂÉ¡£[17]

1609Ä꣬άÄɶû°¸£¨Vynior case£©µÄÆÕͨ·¨²Ã¾ö(4 Eng Rep 302 [1969])ʵÖÊÐԵظıäÁËÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºÓëÉÌÈË·¨Í¥Ö®¼äµÄ¾ºÕù¹ØÏµ£¬ÓÅÊÆ×ªÒÆµ½ÍõÊÒ·¨Ôº¡£¸Ã°¸ÏÈǰÒѾ­Ë½ÈËÖٲûú¹¹×÷³ö²Ã¾ö£¬°®µÂ»ª¡¤¿Â¿ËÑ«¾ô¸´Éó¸Ã°¸Ê±ÔÚ·¨¹ÙÒâ¼ûÖÐÉù³Æ£¬¡°¾¡¹ÜÒ»¸öÈ˱ØÐë·þ´ÓÖٲòþö£¬µ«ËûÈԿɳ·ÏúÖÙ²ÃÔ±¡­¡­ÒòΪһ¸öÈ˲»ÄÜͨ¹ý×Ô¼ºµÄÐÐΪ£¬Õë¶ÔÒÀ·¨Âɼ°×ÔÉí¹ÌÓÐÐÔÖÊϵ¿É³·ÏúÖ®ÇéÐΣ¬¶øÉ趨һ¸ö²»¿É³·ÏúµÄȨÍþÁ¦Á¿»ò±£Ö¤¡£¡±[18]¸Ã²Ã¾öÒâζ×Å£¬°üÀ¨ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥ÔÚÄÚµÄ˽ÈË·¨Í¥Ö®²Ã¾ö£¬¿ÉΪÍõÊÒ·¨Ôº³·Ïú¡£ÒòΪÒÀ¿Â¿ËÑ«¾ô£¬ÖÙ²ÃÔ±µÄÄ¿µÄÊÇѰÇóÒ»¸öÊʵ±µÄÍ×Э£¬¶ø·¨¹ÙµÄÄ¿µÄÔòÊǶ԰¸¼þµÄÊÇ·ÇÇúÖ±×÷³ö²Ã¾ö¡£Êµ¼ÊÉÏ£¬¸Ã°¸³·ÏúÁË¡¶ÖØÒªÉÌÆ··¨¡·¶ÔÉÌÈ˼äµÄ¾À·×¸ù¾ÝÉÌÈË·¨¶ø·ÇÍõÊÒ·¨´¦ÀíµÄ±£Ö¤¡£16ÊÀ¼Íºó£¬ÉÌʾÀ·×ÔÚÓ¢¸ñÀ¼ÔËÓÃ˽ÈË·¨Í¥µÄÇéÐÎʵ¼ÊÉÏÏûʧÁË¡£

ÉÌÈË·¨È´²¢Î´ÏûÍö£¬ËüÖ»ÊǸıäÁË£¬ÔÚ¹ú¼ÒµÄÓ°ÏìÏÂËüÑݱäµÃÆÕ±éÐÔ¸üÉÙ¶øµØ·½ÐÔ¸ü¶à¡£Ëü¿ªÊ¼ÌåÏÖ²»Í¬Ãñ×å¹ú¼ÒµÄ¹úÍõÃǵÄÕþ²ß¡¢ÀûÒæºÍ³ÌÐò¡£ÔÚÓ¢¸ñÀ¼£¬ÕâһתÐÍ×îΪÏÔÖø£¬Ôڿ¿Ë1609ÄêµÄ²Ã¾öÖ®ºó£¬Ó¢¹ú·¨Ôº·ñ¾öÁËÉÌÈË·¨Ðí¶à»ù´¡ÀíÂÛ¡£[19]ÔÚÆÕͨ·¨ÌåϵÖУ¬ÉÌÈËÃDZäµÃÔ½À´Ô½½ôÕÅ£¬ÒòΪËûÃÇ·¢Õ¹µÄ·ÇÕýʽµÄ¡¢Ñ¸ËٵĻú¹¹ÒÑÏûʧÁËÁ½¸ö¶àÊÀ¼Í¡£È»¶ø£¬ÉÌÈË·¨»ùÓÚÒ»¸öºÜºÃµÄÀíÓɶø²»ÄÜÍêÈ«Ïûʧ¡£¹ßÀýÊ¢ÐÐÓÚ¹ú¼ÊóÒ×Ö®ÖУ¬¶øÓ¢¸ñÀ¼ÊÇÒ»¸öóÒ×´ó¹ú¡£Ó¢¹úµÄ·¨¹Ù²»µÃ²»ÓëÆäËû¹ú¼ÒµÄ·¨ÔºÊµÐоºÕùÒÔÎüÒý¹ú¼ÊÉÌʾÀ·×£¬²¢ÇÒÈç¹ûËûÃÇÏ£ÍûÎüÒý´ËÀà°¸¼þ£¬ÔòËûÃÇÒ²²»µÃ²»ÈÏ¿ÉÉæ¼°¹ú¼ÊóÒ׵ݸ¼þÖ®ÉÌҵϰ¹ß¡£

ÏÖ´úÉÌÈË·¨

һЩ·¨Ê·Ñ§¼Ò×ð³çÂü˹·Æ¶ûµÂÑ«¾ô£¨Lord Mansfield£©ÎªÓ¢¸ñÀ¼¡°ÉÌ·¨µÄµÞÔìÕß¡±£¬µ«ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬ÕýÈçÌØÀ­¿ËÂüÖ¸³ö£¬Âü˹·Æ¶ûµÂʵ¼ÊÉÏÊǽ«¹ú¼ÊÉÌÈË·¨ÖØÐÂÒýÈëÁËÓ¢¹ú·¨¡£[20]Âü˹·Æ¶ûµÂÇ¿ÓÐÁ¦µØÖ÷ÕÅ£ºËæ×ÅÉÌҵʵ¼ùµÄ·¢Õ¹£¬Ó¢¸ñÀ¼µÄÉÌÈË·¨²»µÃ²»·¢Õ¹£¬Ò²²»µÃ²»ÈÏ¿ÉÉÌÊÂϰ¹ßºÍ¹ßÀý¡£ÆÕͨ·¨·¨¹Ù¶ÔÓÚñöÌýÂü˹·Æ¶ûµÂµÄ½Ì»åÓÐһЩ¼¤ÀøÒòËØ¡£¸÷¹ú·¨ÔºÎªÎüÒýÉÌÈË×¢ÒâµÄ¹ú¼Ê¾ºÕùÃ÷ÏÔ±äµÃÔ½À´Ô½¼¤ÁÒÁË¡£[21]µ±Ó¢¸ñÀ¼ÔÚÊÀ½çóÒ×ÖеÄÏà¶ÔµØÎ»¿ªÊ¼Ë¥Âäʱ£¬ÆÕͨ·¨·¨Ôº¿ªÊ¼Ê§È¥¹ú¼ÊÉÌʾÀ·×£¬ÄÇЩ°¸¼þÁ÷µ½Á˱ð¹ú·¨Ôº¡£¶ø¾Í´ËÒ»ÏîÖØÒªµÄÔ­ÒòÔÚÓÚ£¬Å·ÖÞ¹ú¼ÒµÄÃñ·¨½ÏÓ¢¹úµÄÆÕͨ·¨¸üÈÝÒ×½ÓÄÉÉÌÈË·¨¡£[22]¾ºÕùÕâÒ»¸ùÔ´ÊÇ´ÙʹÆÕͨ·¨·¨ÔºÔÙ¶ÈÈÏ¿ÉÉÌÈË·¨µÄÒ»¸öÒòËØ¡£È»¶ø£¬ÔÙ¶ÈÈÏ¿ÉÉÌÈË·¨µÄµÚ¶þ¸ö¶¯Òò¿ÉÄÜÒªÀ´µÃÍíһЩ£¬Õâ¾ÍÊǵ±ÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃÖØÐ³öÏÖºÍÆÕͨ·¨·¨Ôº¼á³Ö¹úÄÚÉÌ·¨²»¶¯Ò¡£¬Ê¹Ö®ÔÙÒ»´Î´¦ÓÚÖØ´ó¾ºÕù֮ʱ¡£

ÏÖ´úÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃÖ®¸´ÐË¿É×·ËÝÖÁÃÀ¹úÄÚÕ½¡£±±·½ÁªÃ˶ÔÄϲ¿Áª°îµÄº£ÉÏ·âËøµ¼ÖÂÓ¢¸ñÀ¼¿Éŵķ¨ÔºÓµ¼·£¬ÕâÊÇÓÉÓÚÓйعºÂò¡¢ÔËÊä¡¢³öÊÛÃÞ»¨µ½²»ÁеßÊг¡¶øµ¼ÖµĺÏͬËßËÏ¡ª¡ªÕâЩËßËϽ«»¨·ÑÊýÄêµÄʱ¼ä·½¿É½â¾ö¡£[23]Ðí¶à´¬¶«²»Ô¸ÍµÔ½·âËø£¬¶øÄÇЩÊÔͼ͵Խ·âËøµÄ´ó²¿·Ö´¬¶«Æä´¬Ö»¶¼±»»÷³ÁÁË¡£¼Û¸ñÒÔ²»¿ÉÔ¤ÆÚµÄ·½Ê½²¨¶¯¡£ÓÉÓÚÓ¢¹úµÄÖÐÁ¢ºÍսʱ½ûÔËÆ·µÄ·¨ÂÉ£¬µ¼ÖÂÁ˽øÒ»²½µÄ¸´ÔÓÇé¿ö¡£±£ÏÕҪôÎÞ·¨»ñµÃ£¬ÒªÃ´±ãÔØÓÐÒò¼«´óµÄ²»È·¶¨ÐÔ¶øÐÂÉè²¢¼«Æä¸´ÔÓÖ®Ìõ¿î¡£ÕâЩÌõ¿îÒªÇó¶Ô¸÷ÖÖÐÂÐ͵ÄÒâÍâʹʸøÓ費ͬ½âÊÍ¡£ÒòΪËùÓÐÕâЩÓë·âËøÏà¹ØµÄÀ§ÄѺͲ»È·¶¨ÐÔ£¬ÒÔ¼°Óɴ˵¼ÖµĹ«¹²·¨ÔºµÄ°¸¼þ»ýѹ£¬ÀûÎïÆÖÃÞ»¨ÁªºÏ»áͬÒâÔÚÆäºÏͬÖÐÔØÈëÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿î¡£´ó¶àÊý¾À·×Éæ¼°ÀûÎïÆÖÉÌÈË£¬ÒòΪµ±Ê±ËûÃǾ­Êִ󲿷ÖÃÞ»¨Ã³Òס£Ó빫¹²·¨ÔºµÄ²ÃÅÐÏà±È£¬ÖÙ²ÃÖ¤Ã÷ΪÏ൱µÍÁ®±ãÀû£¬Í¬Ê±¶ÔÉÌÒµ°²ÅÅµÄÆÆ»µÐÔÒ²¸üС£¨¹«¿ªµÄ·¨ÂÉËßËÏÖ®¶Ô¿¹ÐÔÇãÏòÓÚÖÆÔìÐí¶àÁîÈËÄÑÒÔÈÌÊܵÄÇé¸Ð£¬µ¼ÖÂÓÐÀû¿ÉͼµÄÉÌÒµ¹ØÏµÖ®Öսᣬ¶øÖٲõÄÍ×ЭÐÔÔòÇãÏòÓÚ¹ØÏµµÄ±£´æ£©£¬ÒÔÖÁÓÚÀûÎïÆÖÆäËûÉÌ»áºÜ¿ì¾Í²ÉÄÉÁËÕâÖÖ×÷·¨¡£[24]

Ôڶ̶̵ÄʱÈÕÄÚ£¬ÖÙ²ÃÔÚÀûÎïÆÖµÄ³É¹¦µ¼ÖÂÁËÂ׶ضÔÖٲõIJÉÄÉ¡£´ó×ÚÉÌÆ·(ÓñÃ×£¬ÓͲË×Ñ£¬ÃÞ»¨£¬¿§·È)µÄ½»Ò×ÉÌÊ×ÏÈÖÆ¶¨ÁËÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿î£¬½Ó×ÅÊDzִ¢É̺ÍÉú²úÉÌ¡£×îÖÕ£¬½¨Öþʦ¡¢¹¤³Ìʦ¡¢²»¶¯²ú¾­¼ÍÈË¡¢ÅÄÂôÉ̵ÄְҵЭ»á·×·×²ÉÄÉÕâÒ»×÷·¨£¬ÔÚËùÓкÏͬÖÐÑϸñÉ趨ÁËÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿îÒÔ±£ÕϽ»Ò׵ľÀ·×²»½øÈë¹Ù·½·¨Ôº¡£ÕâЩÍÅÌåºÍ¸öÈ˲»¹Ë¿Â¿Ë1609ÄêµÄÅоö£¬Ñ¸ËÙÈÏ¿ÉÁËÖٲõÄÓŵ㡣¿´À´ÆÕͨ·¨¶ÔÉÌÈË·¨µÄÈϿɲ»¿É±ÜÃâ¡£µ«ÔÚÕâÒ»ÃèÊöµÄÉÏÏÂÎÄÖУ¬¸üÖØÒªµÄÊÇ£¬ÖÙ²ÃÖØÐ±£ÁôÏÂÀ´ÁË¡£

¹ú¼ÊÉÌÈË·¨

¼´Ê¹ÉÌÈË·¨ÔÚ¹ú¼Ò·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶ÈÄÚÊܵ½ÖÆÔ¼£¬µ«ËüÈÔÒÔ²»Í¬³Ì¶È³ÖÐøµØ¹æ·¶×Źú¼ÊÉÌÎñ¡£È·ÊµÈç´Ë£¬ÏÖ´ú¹ú¼ÊÉÌ·¨ÊÇÒ»ÖÖÆÕ±éÐԵķ¨ÂÉ¡£ÉÌÈËÃDZ¾ÉíÒÀÈ»ÊÇ·¨ÂÉͳһ×îÖ÷ÒªµÄDZÔÚÔ¨Ô´¡£ËûÃǵĺÏÒâ±ØÐë´´Éè¹ú¼ÊÉÌ·¨£¬ÒòΪÕþ¸®¼äµÄЭÒ鲻̫¿ÉÄܲúÉúËü¡£[25]

Èç½ñ£¬Ðí¶à¹ú¼ÊóÒ×Э»á¶¼ÓÐ×Ô¼ºµÄ¾À·×½â¾ö³ÌÐò¡£ÆäËûÉÌÈËÔòÒÀÀµÒѽ¨Á¢ÊµÖÊÐÔÖٲûú¹¹µÄ¹ú¼ÊÉ̻ᣨICC£©¡£¹ú¼ÊÉÌ»áÖÙ²ÃÔ±¾ùΪ¹ú¼ÊÉÌÎñר¼Ò¡£Í¨³££¬ËûÃÇÑ¡ÈÎÓÚÓëÕùÒéµ±ÊÂÈ˲»Í¬µÄ¹ú¼®¡£¹ú¼ÊÉÌ»áºÍÆäËû¹ú¼ÊÖÙ²ÃÍ¥µÄ³ÌÐò£¬Ñ¸ËÙÁé»îµØ·´Ó³Á˹ú¼ÊÉÌÈ˹²Í¬ÌåÖ®»¥»ÝЭÒ飬ÉÌÈËÃÇÔòÖ§³ÖÖٲóÌÐòËù²úÉúµÄ²Ã¾ö»òЭÒé¡£[26]ÊÂʵÊÇÕâÑùµÄ£¬¹ú¼ÊÉÌÈË·¨Ã»ÓÐÊܵ½¸÷¹úÕþ¸®ºÍµØ·½ÕþÖεÄÖ§ÅäÐÔÓ°Ï죬ÓëÊܵ½Õþ¸®Ê©¼ÓµÄÃñ×å¹ú¼ÒµÄ·¨ÂÉÏÞÖÆÖ®ÄÚ¹úÉÌ·¨Ïà±È£¬Æä·¢Õ¹ºÍ³É³¤¸üΪÇáËÉ×ÔÈ»¡¢¸ü¾ßЧ¹û¡£

ÃÀ¹úÉÌÈË·¨

¾¡¹ÜÔÚÓ¢¸ñÀ¼ÆÕͨ·¨ÕýÖÆÔ¼×ÅÉÌÈË·¨¼°Æä·¨Í¥£¬µ«ÉÌÈËÃÇ»¹ÊǰÑËûÃǵķ¨ÂÉÊäÈëµ½ÃÀÖÞÖ³ÃñµØ£¬²¢ºÜ¿ì½¨Á¢ÆðËûÃÇ×Ô¼ºµÄ¹æÔòºÍ¾À·×½â¾öÖÆ¶È¡£[27]ÔÚÕû¸ö18ÊÀ¼Í£¬Ï°¹ßºÍ˽ÈËÖٲûú¹¹¿ØÖÆÁËÉÌ·¨¼°ÆäÊ©ÐС£ÀýÈç£¬Ëæ×Å17ÊÀ¼ÍŦԼºÍ·Ñ³ÇÉÌÒµÍÅÌåµÄ·¢Õ¹£¬ÉÌÊÂÖٲñ»ÔËÓÃÓÚÁ½µØÉÌÒµÍÅÌåÄÚ²¿¼°Ï໥֮¼äµÄ¾À·×½â¾ö¡£[28]ÕýÈç°¬¿Ï£¨Aiken£©ÔÚ¶ÔºÉÀ¼Ê±´úµÄŦԼµÄ¿¼²ìÖнâÊ͵À£¬¾ÙÀý¶øÑÔ£¬¡°17ÊÀ¼ÍкÉÀ¼µÄÖٲá­¡­ÓëÓ¢¹úµÄÆÕͨ·¨Ïà±È£¬ÊÇÆµ·±¡¢Ñ¸ËÙÇÒÏà¶Ô¼ò±ãµÄ¡£¡±[29]Ϊ¿¼²ìÖٲûµÄˮƽ£¬ÈËÃDz»¿ÉÄÜÈ¥²éÕÒ¹«¹²·¨ÔºµÄ¼Ç¼£¬ÒòΪÖٲòþö¼¸ºõ´Ó²»ÉÏËßÖÁÕâЩ·¨Ôº¡£Òò´Ë£¬Çí˹£¨Jones£©ÀûÓñ¨Ö½¡¢ÉÌÈ˵ÄÐź¯¡¢Å¦Ô¼É̻ᵵ°¸¼°·¨Âɵµ°¸£¬·¢ÏÖÁËÖٲóÖÐøÇҹ㷺µØÔËÓÃÓÚ°¬¿ÏÑо¿¹ýµÄºÉÀ¼Ö³ÃñʱÆÚ£¨1624£­1664Ä꣩µÄŦԼºÍÓ¢¹úÖ³ÃñʱÆÚ£¨1664£­1783Ä꣩µÄŦԼ¡£[30]ȷʵ£¬Å¦Ô¼ÉÌ»áÔÚ1768Äê4ÔÂ5ÈյĵÚÒ»´Î»áÒéÉÏ×îÏȵľٴëÖ®Ò»£¬¾ÍÊÇÖÆ¶¨ÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿î£¬²¢ÇҸûáµÚÒ»ÈÎÖÙ²ÃίԱ»áÓÚͬÄê6ÔÂ7ÈÕÈÎÃü¡£[31]Ö¤¾Ý±íÃ÷£¬¶Ô¸ÃÉÌ»áÖٲ÷þÎñ´æÔÚ¡°Ï൱µÄÐèÇó¡±£¬ÒòΪÖÙ²ÃίԱ»á¶¨ÆÚÈÎÃü£¬Ö±ÖÁ1775ÄêÉÌ»áÒòÕ½Õù¶øÔÝÊ±ÍÆ³Ù»áÒé¡£[32]µ«´Ëºó£¬1779Äê9ÔÂ7ÈÕÓÖÔÙ¶ÈÈÎÃüÁËÒ»¸öÖÙ²ÃίԱ»á£¬¶øÔÚÕû¸ö¸ïÃüʱÆÚ£¬ÖٲûáÒéһֱûÓÐÖжϡ£ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬ÔÚÓ¢¹úÕ¼ÁìŦԼµÄʱÆÚ£¬¸ÃÉÌ»áµÄÖÙ²ÃίԱ»áÄËÊÇÃñʰ¸¼þµÄΨһ·¨Ôº¡ª¡ª²»ÁеßÕ¼Áì¾ü½«ÃñʾÀ·×ίÍÐÓɸÃÉ̻ᴦÀí¡£[33]

¸ïÃüÖ®ºó£¬Å¦Ô¼ÉÌ»á¼ÌÐøÎªÆä³ÉÔ±ÌṩÖٲã¬[34]²¢ÇÒÔÚÆäËûÖÝÒ²´æÔÚÓйØÖٲõĴóÁ¿Ö¤¾Ý¡£[35]ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬Õâ¶ÎʱÆÚµÄ¹Ù·½·¨Ôº£¬²¢Ã»ÓÐÒÔÒ»ÖÖÉÌÈËÍÅÌåÈÏΪ¹«Æ½¿ì½ÝµÄ·½Ê½ÊÊÓÃÉÌ·¨£º¡°°´ÕÕÒ»¸öŦԼÉÌÈ˵Ä˵·¨£¬·¨Ôº²»½ö½öÔÚÊ©ÐС®°º¹ó¡¢Èß³¤µÄ·¨ÂÉ¡¯£»ËüÃÇÒ²ÊèÓÚ·¢Õ¹´Ù½øÉÌÒµ·¢´ïµÄ·¨ÂÉÔ­Ôò¡£¡±[36]ÔÚÖ³ÃñµØÊ±ÆÚºÍ¸ïÃüºóʱÆÚ£¬ÉÌÊÂÖٲõÄÔËÓõõ½ÁË·¢Õ¹£¬¾¡¹Ü¿ÉÒÔÍÆ¶¨£¬ÃÀ¹ú£¨Ó¢¹úÖ³ÃñµØÒÔ¼°ºóÀ´Ð´´½¨µÄ¹ú¼Ò£©·¨ÔºÊÊÓõÄÏà¹ØÅÐÀý·¨Ö®Ö÷ÌåΪӢ¹úÆÕͨ·¨1609ÄêÆÕͨ·¨²Ã¾öÕâÒ»ÊÂʵÏ÷ÈõÁËÆÕͨ·¨Ï½ÇøÖÐÖٲõÄʹÓ᣼øÓÚ¸ÃÅÐÀýÒÔ¼°ÆäËûһЩÅÐÀý£¬Ë½ÈËÖÙ²ÃÏÔ¶øÒ×¼ûûÓдӹú¼Ò»ñȡȨÍþ£¬ÇÒʵ¼ÊÉÏ£¬¸ù¾ÝÓйعú¼Ò³ÉÎÄ·¨£¬Öٲòþö²¢²»¾ß·¨ÂÉȨÍþ¡£[37]È»¶ø£¬ËüÃÇÊÂʵÉÏÈ´ÓµÓÐȨÍþ¡£È¨ÍþÀ´×ÔÉÌÈËÍÅÌåÄÚ²¿ËùÐγɵĻ¥»ÝЭÒ飬ÒÔ¼°¸öÈ˶Ծܾø³ÐÈÏÖٲòþöÏà°é¶øÉúµÄDZÔÚÉùÓþÓ°ÏìµÄÈÏÖª¡£

¼´±ãÔÚ1775Äêµ½1825ÄêÆÚ¼ä£¬Ëæ×ÅÖÝ·¨ÔºÏµÍ³µÄ·¢Õ¹ºÍ³ÉÊ죬ËüÃÇÈÔ¶ÔÖٲû³ÓС°µÐÒ⡱¡£ÔÚ´ËÆÚ¼ä£¬·¨Ôº¶ÔÖٲõÄ̬¶ÈÉõÖÁ¿ÉÒÔÃèÊöΪһÖÖ²»¶ÏÔö³¤µÄµÐÒ⣬¿É¡°ÔÚµ±ÖÙ²ÃÉв»ÎªºÜ¶àÈËËùÖªºÍËùÓõÄÄǶÎʱÆÚÄÚ¶¼ÒѾ­À´²»¼°ÁË¡£¡±[38]ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬ÖٲõÄÐÂԴȪÒѾ­³öÏÖ£¬¶øÈ¡´úÁËÆäËû°²ÅÅ¡£ÀýÈçÔÚŦԼ£¬Ëæ×ž­¼ÃÔö³¤¼°Æä¶àÑù»¯£¬µ±¸ü¶àÉæ¼°ÃæÏÁÕ­¡¢×¨Òµ»¯¸ü¸ßµÄ¡°ÉÌÒµÍÅÌ壨²»ÂÛÊÇ·ñÕýʽ×齨£©¡±·¢Õ¹ÆäÄÚ²¿µÄÖٲóÌÐòʱ£¬Å¦Ô¼ÉÌ»á×÷ΪÖٲ÷þÎñµÄÌṩÕߣ¬ÒÑÖð½¥±äµÃÔ½À´Ô½²»ÖØÒªÁË¡£[39]±ÈÈ磬1792Äê´´ÉèµÄŦԼ֤ȯ½»Ò×Ëù£¬ÔÚÆä1817ÄêµÄÕ³ÌÖÐÕýʽ¹æ¶¨ÁËÖٲ㬲¢ÇÒËü¡°×ÔÄÇʱÆð±ãÒ»Ö±³É¹¦ÔË×÷¡±£¬ËüÖ÷Òªµ÷ÕûŦԼ֤ȯ½»Ò×Ëù³ÉÔ±ÓëÆä¿Í»§Ö®¼äµÄ¾À·×¡£[40]

°éËæÖٲõijÖÐø·¢Õ¹£¬ÔÚ1830Äê´ú£¬ÆÕͨ·¨Ôº¶ÔÖٲõĵÐÒâÈÕÒæÔö³¤Ö®Ç÷ÊÆÔÚһЩÖÝ¿ªÊ¼Äæ×ª¡£[41]È»¶ø±ØÐë³ÐÈÏ£¬ÔÚ·¨ÔºÌ¬¶È¿ªÊ¼Äæ×ªÖ®Ç°ÖÙ²ÃÒÑÎÈסÁËÕó½Å£»½ø¶ø£¬²»ÂÛÔÚ·¨Ôº±ä»¯³Ù¶ÛµÄÖÝÈçŦԼ£¬»¹ÊÇÔÚ·¨ÔºÓ¦±äÃô½ÝµÄÖÝ£¬ÖٲýԵõ½ÁË·¢Õ¹¡£ÀýÈ磬ÖÁÉÙÔçÔÚ1861Ä꣬»òÐí¸üÔ磬¾ÍÓÐΪŦԼÉÌÆ·½»Ò×Ëù»áÔ±ÌṩÖٲõÄÖ¤¾Ý¡£[42]µ±ÉÌÈËÃÇ×éÖ¯¸÷ÖÖЭ»áºÍ½»Ò×Ëùʱ£¬Í¨³£»á¾Í³ÉÔ±¼äµÄ¾À·×ÖÆ¶¨ÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿î¡£¹ÊÓÐÏ൱µÄÖ¤¾Ý±íÃ÷£¬ºÏͬÖеÄÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿îÒÔ¼°Ã³Ò×ÉÌ»áºÍÉÌÆ·½»Ò×ËùÌṩµÄÖٲõõ½Á˹㷺ÔËÓá£ÔÚ19ÊÀ¼ÍµÄºó40Ä꣬ÕýºÃÔÚÏÖ´úÖٲ÷¨ÂÉͨ¹ýǰ£¬Ö¤¾ÝµÄÊýÁ¿ÓÈÆä³ä·Ö¡£[43]

ŦԼÉÌ»á×÷ΪÖٲ÷þÎñµÄÒ»¸öÌṩÕߣ¬ÆäÖØÒªÐÔÈÕÒæË¥Èõ£¬¶Ô½ÓÏÂÀ´ÌÖÂÛÖٲ÷¨Í¨¹ýµÄÕþÖζ¯ÒòÖÁ¹ØÖØÒª¡£¸ÃÉ̻ᡰÔÚÕû¸ö19ÊÀ¼Í£¬ÖÁÉÙÒÔÒ»ÖÖ²»Á¬¹áµÄ·½Ê½¡±£¬[44]³ÖÐøÎªÆä³ÉÔ±ÌṩÖٲ÷þÎñ£¬µ«¶Ô¸ÃÉÌ»á·þÎñµÄʹÓÃÔÚ19ÊÀ¼Íǰ°ëÆÚÈ´Öð½¥Ï½µ£¬²¢×îÖÕÍêÈ«Ïûʧ¡£µ±¸ÃÉÌ»áÔÚŦԼÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃÖпªÊ¼Ê§È¥Ö§ÅäÐÔµØÎ»Ê±£¬¡°Ëü¿ªÊ¼ÏòÖÝѰÇóÖ§³Ö£¬ÊÔͼΪÆä³ÉÔ±Ìṩ²ÃÅзþÎñ¡£¡±[45]1861ÄêÐÞ¶©ÁËÖÝÌØÐí×´£¬Ã÷È·¹æ¶¨ÉèÁ¢ÖÙ²ÃίԱ»á£¬²¢¹æ¶¨£¬Èçµ±ÊÂÈËÏ£Íû·¨ÔºÖ´ÐÐÖٲòþö£¬Ôò¸ÃίԱ»áµÄ²Ã¾ö¿ÉµÇ¼Ç×÷Ϊ·¨ÔºµÄÅоö¡£È»¶ø£¬¾¡¹Ü´æÔÚ·¨ÔºÕâÑùµÄÖ§³Ö£¬¸ÃÉ̻ỹÊdzÖÐø¶ª³ÇʧµØÓÚÆäËûµÄÖٲð²ÅÅ¡£Òò´Ë£¬1874Äêͨ¹ýÁ˸ÃÌØÐí×´µÄÒ»ÏîÐÞÕý°¸£¬¹æ¶¨ÓÉÖݳ¤ÈÎÃü¡°Ò»Î»Å¦Ô¼ÖÝÉÌ»áÖÙ²ÃÔ±¡±£¬²¢ÓÉÉÌ»áÖ§¸¶±¨³ê£»´ËÍ⣬ΪÖٲþÀ·×¿É´«»½ÉÌ»á³ÉÔ±£¬µ±È»ËûÃÇ¿ÉÒÔ¶Ô¸ÃÖÙ²ÃÔ±Ìá³ö·´¶Ô¶ø²»ÊÜÉÌ»á¹ÜϽ¡£[46]1874Ä껹²¹³äÁËÒ»Ïî·¨°¸£¬¹æ¶¨¸ÃÉÌ»á³ÉÔ±¡°¿ÉÓ¦ÉêÇëÊéÖ®ÒªÇó¶ø½«Æä°¸¼þÌá½»¸Ã[ÉÌ»áÖÙ²Ã]·¨Í¥ÉóÀí£¬ÇҸ÷¨Í¥µÄ·¨¹Ù£¨judge£©ÏµÓÉÖÝÖ§¸¶±¨³ê¡£¡±[47]ÉÌ»áΪºÎѰÇó´ËÀà·¨¹æ£¿ÉÌ»áÖÙ²ÃÍ¥ÒѺöÂÔÁËһЩ´ÙʹÖٲþßÓÐÎüÒýÁ¦µÄÒòËØ¡£ËüÅäÓÐһλ¹Ì¶¨µÄ×øÌÃÎʰ¸µÄ·¨¹Ù£¬¶ø²»ÔÊÐíµ±ÊÂÈËÓÐȨѡÔñһλÓÐÌØ¶¨×¨ÒµÖªÊ¶µÄÖÙ²ÃÔ±¡£¸Ã·¨¹ÙÉõÖÁÓÉÖÝÖ§¸¶±¨³ê£¬Òò´ËÄÇЩÄþ¿É±Ü¿ªÕþ¸®Ó°ÏìµÄÉÌÈ˾ͻáÌá·ÀÉÌ»áµÄÖÙ²ÃÔ±¡£ÎÞÂÛÈçºÎ£¬¼´±ãÈÎÃüһλ·¨¹Ù£¬Ò²¼Ù¶¨³ÉÎÄ·¨ÒªÇóÉÌ»á³ÉÔ±½«Æä¾À·×Ìá½»¸Ã·¨¹Ù²Ã¾ö£¬ÇÒÈçµ±ÊÂÈËͬÒ⣬ÉÌ»áµÄÖٲòþö¾ß±¸·¨Ôº²Ã¾öÖ®Ç¿ÖÆÁ¦£¬¿ÉÊÇÒò´ËÉÌ»áÔÚÊÂʵÉϾÍÎÞ·¨ÎüÒýÖÙ²ÃÒµÎñÁË¡£ÉÌÈËÃÇת¶ø½«Æä¾À·×½»ÓɸüС¹æÄ£µÄÕýʽ»ò·ÇÕýʽÍÅÌåÖٲ᣽á¹û£¬ÉÌ»áÖٲõ퍹ÙÒ²Ö»ÊÇÔÚ±»ÈÎÃüµÄǰÁ½ÄêÓÉÖÝÖ§¸¶±¨³ê¡£ÕýÈçÇí˹£¨Jones£©µÃ³ö½áÂ۳ƣ¬¡°ÓÉ´Ë¿´À´£¬É̻᲻¶ÏµØÊÔͼΪÆä³ÉÔ±ÌṩÖٲñãÀû£¬È»¶øËüÈ´´ÓδÉè¼Æ³öÒ»ÖÖÍêÈ«ÁîÈËÂúÒâµÄÖÆ¶È¡£¡±[48]

һЩ¹Û²ì¼ÒÖ÷ÕÅ£¬°éËæ×ÅÉÌʾÀ·×Öð½¥ÄÉÈëÖÝ·¨Ôº½â¾ö£¬ÉÌ»áÖٲõÄûÂäÒÔ¼°×îÖÕÏûʧ·´Ó³ÁË19ÊÀ¼ÍËùÓÐÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃµÄÆÕ±éÐÔË¥ÂäºÍÏûʧ¡£[49]ÔÚ´ËÆÚ¼ä£¬ÖÝ·¨ÔºÃ÷ÏÔÔö¼ÓÁËÉÌʾÀ·×½â¾ö»î¶¯£¬µ«ÊÂʵÊÇ£¬ÓÉÓÚ·ÇÕýʽÉÌÒµÍÅÌå¡¢ÕýʽµÄóÒ×Э»áÒÔ¼°ÓÐ×éÖ¯µÄÉÌÆ·½»Ò×ËùÖ®Ö§³Ö£¬ÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃÔÚÕû¸öÕâÒ»ÊÀ¼Í¶¼µÃµ½Á˳ÖÐø²»¶ÏµØÀûÓá£ÃÀ¹úµÄ¹«¹²·¨¹ÙÓëËûÃǵÄÓ¢¹úͬÐÐÏà±È£¬¶àÉÙ¸üÈÝÒ×½ÓÊÜÉÌÈË·¨¡£[50]µÄÈ·£¬¡¶Í³Ò»ÉÌ·¨µä¡·±íÃ÷£¬ÉÌÒµ¹ßÀýºÍϰ¹ßÒѳÉΪÉÌÊÂʵÌå·¨Ö®»ù±¾Ô¨Ô´¡£¡°¸ÃÁìÓòÖ®³ÉÎÄ·¨¡±£¬ÕýÈçÌØÀ­¿ËÂü×¢Òâµ½£¬¡°±»ÆÈÓëÉÌÈËÖ®ÒªÇó±£³ÖÒ»Ö£¬¶ø·ÇÏà·´¡£¡±[51]ÕâÒ»µã¿ÉÄÜ·´Ó³ÁËÃÀ¹úËù´æÔڵĹÜÏ½È¨Çø·Ö£¬¶øÕâÓÖ°µÊ¾×ŶԾÀ·×µÄ¾ºÕù±ÈÔÚÓ¢¹úÒªÖØ´óµÃ¶à¡£½ø¶ø£¬ÖÙ²Ã×÷Ϊ¹«¹²·¨ÔºÇ±ÔÚµÄÌæ´úÐÔ·½Ê½Ê¼ÖÕ´æÔÚÓÚÃÀ¹ú£¬ÕâÆÈʹѰÇó²ÃÅÐÉÌʾÀ·×µÄ¹«¹²·¨ÔºÖ´ÐÐÉÌÈËÍÅÌåËù·¢Õ¹µÄ·¨ÂÉ¡£ËäÈ»Èç´Ë£¬ÖÙ²ÃÔÚÕû¸ö19ÊÀ¼Í½ÔΪÈËÃdzÖÐøÔËÓã¬ÇÒÔÚÕâ¸öÊÀ¼ÍµÄÍíÆÚ£¬ÖÙ²ÃÏà¶ÔËßË϶øÑÔ»ñµÃÁ˸üѸËٵķ¢Õ¹¡£È·Êµ£¬ÓÉÓÚÉÌ»áŬÁ¦ÌṩÖٲð²ÅÅÁî֮÷¿ª¶þ¶È£¬´Ó¶øÃ÷ÏÔ´´ÔìÁ˳ä×ãµÄÖÙ²ÃÒµÎñ¡£Ó빫¹²·¨ÔºÏà±È£¬Ö®ËùÒÔ¶ÔÖÙ²ÃÔËÓõÄÔö¼ÓÉõÖÁ¸üΪѸËÙ£¬ÒòËØÖ®Ò»Ã÷ÏÔÊDz»¶ÏÔö³¤µÄ·¨ÔºÓµ¼·ºÍÉóÅгÙÑÓÎÊÌ⣬µ«´ËÍ⣬¡°ÊܹæÕÂÏÞÖÆµÄÖݶÔÉÌÊÂ×ÔÖεij«µ¼Õßδ¼°´¦ÀíÖ®ÈÕÒæÔö³¤£¬Ê¹µÃËûÃÇתÏòÖÙ²ÃÒԱܿªÕþ¸®Ö®ÇÖÈÅ¡±Ò²ÊôÔ­ÒòÖ®Ò»¡£[52]µ½Ò»Õ½½áÊøÊ±£¬ÖÙ²ÃÃ÷ÏÔµ¼Ö¡°·¨ÔºÔÚÐí¶àÁìÓò³ÉΪµÚ¶þλµÄËßÖî¶ÔÏ󣬲¢ÔÚÆäËûÁìÓòÍêÈ«¶àÓà¡£¡±[53]Òò´Ë£¬±±ÃÀÖݵÄÖٲá°²¢·ÇÒòΪ [1920Äê]ͨ¹ýÁËÒ»Ïî³ÉÎÄ·¨¹æ¶¨ÓйØÎ´À´¾À·×Ö®ÖÙ²ÃЭÒé¾ßÓÐÖ´ÐÐÁ¦¡­¡­¶ø¶¸È»Ðγɡ£Ïà·´²»ÂÛÊÇ·ñÓз¨ÂÉ֮ЭÖúËüÒÑ´æÔÚÁË¡±¼¸¸öÊÀ¼Í¡£[54]ÉÌÈËÃÇÖ®ËùÒԱܿª¹Ù·½·¨Ôº£¬ÊÇÒòΪÄÇЩ·¨Í¥Ã»ÓÐÒÔÉÌÈËÍÅÌåÊÓΪ¹«Õý¡¢µÍÁ®Ö®·½Ê½ÊÊÓÃÉÌ·¨¡£

×Ô´Ó±¾ÊÀ¼Í*³õÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃÔÚÃÀ¹úÔٶȳöÏÖÒÔÀ´£¬Æäʵ¼ùÔËÓÃÔÚ³ÖÐøÔö³¤¡£µ½1950Äê´úʱ£¬Öٲýâ¾öÁË´óÔ¼75£¥µÄÉÌʾÀ·×£¬[55]ÖÁ1965Äêʱ£¬ÉÌÊÂÖٲõÄÔËÓÃÒÔÿÄêÔ¼10£¥µÄ±ÈÀýÔö³¤¡£[56]ÕâÒ»Ç÷ÊÆËÆºõÕýÔÚ¼ÓËÙ£¬¾¡¹ÜÎÞ·¨»ñµÃÓйØÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃÇé¿öµÄͳ¼ÆÊý¾Ý¡£Èç½ñÐí¶à²úÒµ²¿Ãźʹó¶àÊýóÒ×Э»á¶¼ÔÚËüÃǵĺÏͬÖÐÔØÃ÷ÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿î¡£

·ÇÉÌÈ˶ÔÖÙ²ÃÑÝ»¯Ö®Ó°Ïì

µ±19ÊÀ¼ÍÄ©20ÊÀ¼Í³õÖÙ²ÃÔÚÃÀ¹úÖØÐ³öÏÖʱ£¬ÆäÖ§³ÖÀ´×ÔÓÚÒ»¸öÁîÈ˾ªÑÈÖ®¸ùÔ´¡£¸»ÓÚÓ°ÏìÁ¦µÄÂÉʦÃǽ¨Ò飬Ӧ¸ÃʹÓÃÓÉÂÉʦÖ÷³ÖµÄ×ÔÔ¸Öٲã¬ÒÔ»º½â·¨ÔºÓµ¼·¡£ÔÚ20ÊÀ¼ÍÔçÆÚ£¬¹«ÖÚ¶ÔÂÉʦ¡¢Ë¾·¨ÈËÔ±ºÍ·¨ÔºµÄ×ðÖØ³ÊϽµÇ÷ÊÆ£¬ÇÒ·¨ÔºÓµ¼·Õý³ÉΪһ¸öÏà¶ÔÖØ´óµÄÎÊÌâ¡£[57]Òò´Ë£¬ÂÉʦÃÇʵÐеֿ¹£¨on the defensive£©¡£[58]ËûÃÇÕýÔÚѰÇóÒ»ÖÖ·½Ê½£¬ÒÔ»º½â·¨ÔºÓµ¼·²¢Í¬Ê±ÌáÉý·¨¹ÙºÍÂÉʦ֮µØÎ»¡£È»¶ø£¬ÌÈÈô½¨Á¢¹«¹²·¨ÔºÖ®Ìæ´úÐÔ·¨Í¥£¬ËûÃÇÔòÏëÒªÒ»ÖÖËûÃÇ¿ÉÄÜÓÐÄÜÁ¦Ó°Ïì¡¢ÉõÖÁ»òÐí¿ØÖÆµÄ·¨Í¥¡£ÖÙ²Ã×÷ΪһÖÖÌæ´úÐÔ·¨Í¥·¢Õ¹Ñ¸ÃÍ£¬ÇÒһЩÂÉʦÒÑ¿ªÊ¼Òâʶµ½ÉÌÊÂÖٲöԹٷ½µÄ¶Ô¿¹Ê½¾À·×½â¾ö³ÌÐòÖ®¾ºÕùÐÔÍþв¡£ËûÃÇҲϣÍû¿ØÖÆÖٲ᣶øÓëÖ®Ïà¶ÔµÄÊÇ£¬ÉÌÈË×·ÇóµÄÄËÊÇÒÔÉÌҵϰ¹ßºÍ¹ßÀýΪ»ù´¡µÄ¿ìËÙ¡¢µÍÁ®µÄ¾À·×½â¾ö·½Ê½¡ª¡ªËûÃÇÃÎÃÂÒÔÇóµÄÊÇÉÌÈË·¨¡£Òò´Ë£¬¾¡¹ÜËûÃǸ÷»³¶¯»ú£¬ÉÌ»áÈÔÖ§³ÖŦԼÂÉʦ½çΪ»ñµÃÖݶÔÖٲ᰺Ϸ¨ÐÔ¡±Ö®ÈϿɶø½øÐеÄÇ¿ÓÐÁ¦µÄÓÎ˵»î¶¯¡£ÕâЩŬÁ¦µ¼ÖÂ1920ÄêŦԼͨ¹ýÒ»Ïî³ÉÎÄ·¨£¬Ö¼ÔÚÍÆ·­ÔÚÃÀ¹úÈÔÊôÏÈÀýµÄ¿Â¿ËÑ«¾ô1609ÄêÈ·Á¢µÄÆÕͨ·¨¹æÔò¡£¸Ã·¨´ÙʹÖÙ²ÃЭÒéÒÀÖÝ·¨¾ßÓоÐÊøÁ¦£¬²¢ÔÚŦԼµÄ·¨Ôº¿ÉÇ¿ÖÆÖ´ÐС£´Ëºó£¬¼¸ºõËùÓÐÆäËûÖݽÔͨ¹ýÁËÀàËÆµÄ·¨ÂÉ¡£[59]

À¼µÂ˹ºÍ²¨Ë¹ÄÉ·´Ó³ÁËÕâÖÖ·¨ÂɳÌÐòµÄÐí¶à¹Û²ì¼ÒµÄ¹Ûµã£¬ËûÃÇÖ÷ÕÅ£¬ºÏͬÖеÄÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿î¡°Êµ¼ÊÓÐЧ£¬ÖÁÉÙÔںܴó³Ì¶ÈÉÏÖ»ÊÇÒòΪ¹«¹²·¨ÔºÖ´ÐдËÀàºÏͬ£»ÌÈÈôËüÃDz»Ö´ÐУ¬Í¨³£¾Í¶Ô½ö½öÊÇÎ¥·´ºÏͬ¶ø¾Ü¾øÖٲõĵ±ÊÂÈËȱ·¦ÓÐЧµÄÖÆ²Ã¡±£¨Öصãϵ±¾ÈËËù¼Ó£©¡£[60]»»ÑÔÖ®£¬Ë½ÈËÖÙ²ÃÊǹ«¹²·¨ÔºÒ»ÖÖ¿ÉÐÐ֮ѡÔñ£¬ÊÇÒòΪËüµÃµ½ÁËÄÇЩ¹«¹²·¨ÔºµÄÖ§³Ö¡£µ«ÕâÒ»¶ÏÑÔÊÇÈ·È»´íÎóµÄ¡£Ê×ÏÈ£¬ÉÌÈË·¨µÄ·¢Õ¹ÀúÊ·±íÃ÷£¬ÉÌÈËÍÅÌåÄܹ»²úÉúÖØ´óµÄÁªºÏµÖÖÆÖ®ÖÆ²Ã¡£È·Êµ£¬ÕýÈçÉÏÊö£¬¹ú¼ÊÉÌÈË·¨ÔÚûÓÐÇ¿ÖÆÐÔÕþ¸®È¨ÍþµÄÖ§³ÖÏ´æÐø²¢·±ÈÙÖÁ½ñ¡£³ý´ËÖ®Í⣬1920Äê֮ǰ¼´Öٲòþö¿ÉÄÉÈ빫¹²·¨Ôº[Ö´ÐÐ]ǰ£¬ÖٲþÍÔÚÃÀ¹úÁ÷Ðв¢µÃµ½ÁË·¢Õ¹¡£ÖÙ²ÃÔÚ1920ÄêǰµÄÁ÷ÐÐʵ¼ÊÉϱíÃ÷£¬·¨ÂÉÇ¿ÖÆ¶ÔÆä³É¹¦²¢²»¹Ø¼ü¡£¶øÇÒ£¬ÁªºÏµÖÖÆÈÔÊôÒ»Öָ߶ÈÓÐЧµÄÖÆ²Ã¡£[61]¾Ü¾ø×ñÊØÖٲòþöµÄÉÌÈ˻ᷢÏÖ£¬Î´À´Ëû½«ÎÞ·¨ËßÖîóÒ×Э»áÖÙ²ÃÍ¥£¬»òÕßÔÚЭ»á³ÉÔ±µÄÃûµ¥ÖÐËûµÄÃû×Ö²»¼ûÁË¡£Îé¶ûµÂÀïÆæÖ¸³ö£¬ÕâЩ³Í·£¡°ÓëËû²»×ñÊØ²Ã¾öµÄ³É±¾Ïà±È¡±£¬ÒªÔ¶Ô¶¸üÁîÈ˿־壬¡°×ÔÔ¸ºÍ˽È˵IJÃÅÐ[ÊÇ]¸öÈË×ÔÔ¸×ñÑ­µÄ£¬¶øÕâ¼´±ã²»ÊdzöÓÚÈÙÓþ£¬Ò²ÊÇÔ´ÓÚ×ÔÉíÀûÒæ¡£¡±[62]È»¶ø£¬Õâ²¢²»Òâζ×ÅŦԼÖݵÄÄDz¿³ÉÎÄ·¨¼°ËùÓвÎÕÕËüµÄ·¨ÂÉδ¶ÔÖٲòúÉúÓ°Ïì¡£ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬ÖÙ²ÃÏà¶ÔÓÚ¹«¹²·¨Ôº¶øÑÔ£¬ÓëÈç¹ûûÓÐÕâЩ·¨ÂÉʱÏà±È±ä³ÉÁËÒ»¸ö¸üÉÙÎüÒýÁ¦µÄÌæ´úÐÔÑ¡Ôñ¡£[63]

ÓÉÓÚÕâЩ·¨ÂÉ£¬ÂÉʦÃÇ»ý¼«µØ²ÎÓëÉÌÊÂÖٲá£ÀýÈ磬ÔÚŦԼÖݵijÉÎÄ·¨Í¨¹ýºó£¬ÉÌÈËÃǾʹóÁ¿°¸¼þÏò·¨ÔºÌá³öÉêÇ룬ÊÔͼȷ¶¨ÖٲõÄÄÄÐ©ÌØÕ÷±»·¨ÔºÊÓΪ¡°ºÏ·¨¡±¡£[64]°¸¼þÉæ¼°ÖÙ²ÃԱѡÈεÄÊʵ±·½Ê½¡¢ÂÉʦÊÇ·ñ³öÍ¥¡¢³ÌÐòÊÇ·ñ²ÉÓÃËټǷ½Ê½µÈÖîÈç´ËÀàµÄÎÊÌâ¡£ÉÌÈËÃDZ»ÆÈ¹Ø×¢Ë¾·¨¸´Éó֮ǰ¾°£¬²»µÃ²»´ÙʹÖٲóÌÐò·ûºÏ³ÉÎÄ·¨ºÍÉæ¼°ÆÕͨ·¨ÖгÌÐò·½ÃæµÄÅÐÀý·¨¡£1920ÄêÖ®ºóµÄһλ¹Û²ì¼ÒÖ¸³ö£¬¡°Í¨¹ýËßÖîÖٲöø²ÉÈ¡·À·¶´ëÊ©ÒÔ±ÜÃâËßËÏÖ®ÈË£¬ÆäÃüÔ˼«¾ß·í´ÌÒâζµÄÊÇ£¬×÷ΪÀÍ¿à·ÑÐÄÖ®»Ø±¨£¬Ëû»á·¢¾õ×Ô¼ºÖÃÉíÓÚ·¨Í¥Ö®Õù£¬µ«²»ÊÇΪ°¸¼þµÄÊÇ·ÇÇúÖ±¶øÕ½£¬¶øÊÇΪÖٲõÄÊÇ·ÇÇúÖ±¶øÕ½¡±£¬ÕâÄ»¡°²»ÐàµÄ±¯Ï²¾ç¡±Õ¹Ê¾Á˹ٷ½·¨ÂɳÌÐòÔÚ¡°ÒÖÖÆÌӱܸ´ÔÓ·¨ÂɳÌÐòÖ®Õýµ±Å¬Á¦¡±·½ÃæµÄ³É¹¦¡£[65]

ÖٲõÄÔËÓò»ÔÙÏÞÓÚÉÌÈËÖ®¼äµÄÉÌʾÀ·×¡£ÕâÒ»×÷·¨Ò²Íƹ㵽ÆäËûÁìÓò¡£ÀýÈçµ½1970Ä꣬±£ÏÕ¹«Ë¾ÒÑÖÙ²ÃÁË50000¶à¼þË÷Åâ¡£[66]È«ÃÀסլ½¨ÖþÉÌÁªºÏ»á£¨The National Association of Home Builders£©ÒÑ¿ªÊ¼Ò»ÏîÃûΪסլËùÓÐÕßµ£±£¼Æ»®£¬¸Ã¼Æ»®¾ÍÂò·½¶ÔÁªºÏ»á½¨ÖþÉ̵ÄͶËßÌṩÖٲá£ÔÚ1981Äêǰ£¬¾ÍÓдóÔ¼950000Ì×סլʵʩÁË´ËÏîµ£±£¼Æ»®£¬¶ø½öÔÚ1980Ä꣬ÃÀ¹úÖÙ²ÃЭ»á£¨AAA£©¾Í½â¾öÁË1800×Ú´ËÀà°¸Àý¡£[67]ͨ¹ýÖٲýâ¾öµÄÏû·ÑÕß¾À·×Ò²ÔÚÈÕÒæÔö³¤¡£ÉÌÒµ´Ù½ø¾Ö£¨Better Business Bureau£©ÀíÊ»áÔÚÈ«¹úÐí¶àµØ·½Õë¶ÔÏû·ÑÕßʵÐÐÖٲüƻ®¡£ËûÃǹÄÀø¹«Ë¾¶ÔÏû·ÑÕßͶËßÏÈÌá½»Öٲá£È»ºó£¬Èç¹ûÏû·ÑÕß²»ÄÜ´Ó¹«Ë¾»ñµÃÂúÒâµÄ½â¾ö£¬Ôò¿ÉËßÖúµ±µØµÄÉÌÒµ´Ù½ø¾Ö¡£µäÐÍ×÷·¨ÊÇ£¬ÉÌÒµ´Ù½ø¾Ö»áÊÔͼ´Ù³É·ÇÕýʽµ÷ºÍ£¬µ«Èô²»´ÕЧ£¬ÔòÈÃÏû·ÑÕߺ͹«Ë¾´ÓÒ»×éÖ¾Ô¸ÕßÖÐÑ¡ÔñÒ»ÃûÖÙ²ÃÔ±À´½â¾ö·ÖÆç¡£ÔÚÐí¶à°¸¼þÖУ¬Ëü¶¼ÔÚÏû·ÑÕߵļÒÖнøÐÐÖÙ²ÃÉóÀí£¬¹Ê¿É¶ÔÓÐ覴õÄÉÌÆ·½øÐмìÑé¡£ÉÌÒµ´Ù½ø¾ÖµÄÏû·ÑÕßÖÙ²Ã×îÖ÷ÒªµÄÊÊÓÃÁìÓò£¬ÊÇÓÐ¹ØÆû³µºÍÆû³µ±£ÏÕ¡£ºÃ¼¸¼ÒÆû³µÖÆÔìÉ̶¼ÓëÉÌÒµ´Ù½ø¾ÖÀíÊ»áÇ©¶©Á˺Ïͬ£¬ÓÉÆäÖÙ²ÃÆû³µ³µÖ÷¾ÍÕâЩ¹«Ë¾µÄÆû³µ»ò·þÎñµÄͶËß¡£´ËÍ⣬ÃÀ¹úÖÙ²ÃЭ»áÿÄêÒ²ÖÙ²Ã15000¶à×ÚÆû³µ±£ÏÕ°¸¼þ¡£[68]

ÖÙ²ÃҲͬÑùÊÊÓÃÓÚÆäËûÏû·ÑÕß¾À·×¡£ÀýÈç£¬Ëæ×ÅÒ½ÁÆÊ¹ÊËßËϱäµÃ¸üΪ°º¹ó¡¢¸ü¼Ó¹ã·º£¬×îÔç¿É×·ËÝÖÁ1929ÄêµÄÒ½ÁÆÊ¹ÊÖÙ²ÃÕý´¦ÓÚÉÏÉý½×¶Î¡£ÕýÈçÔÚÉÌÊÂÖÙ²ÃÖÐÄÇÑù£¬ÊÂǰЭÒé¶ÔÕâЩ°¸¼þÖÁ¹ØÖØÒª¡£ÀýÈ磬ȫ¹ú×î´óµÄÒ½ÁƱ£½¡Ô¤Ö§ÏµÍ³µÄ¾èÖúÈ˼ÓÖÝ¿­Èö½¡¿µ¼Æ»®»ù½ð»á£¬Í¬Òâ¾ÍÇ©¶©ÖÙ²ÃЭÒéµÄÈκÎË÷ÅâÌṩÖٲ㬼ÓÖݵÄÒ½ÔººÍÒ½ÁÆÁªºÏ»áÒ²·¢ÆðÁËÒ»¸öÓÉ200¸öÒ½Ôº×é³ÉµÄÖÙ²ÃÌåϵ¡£[69]ÃÀ¹úÖÙ²ÃЭ»áÒ²ÌṩҽÁÆÊ¹ÊÖٲᣠ¾¡¹ÜÖÙ²ÃÖ®ÌØÉ«ÒòÕþ¸®ÊÔͼÒÖÖÆ¶øÊܵ½ÁËʵÖÊÐÔÓ°Ï죬µ«ÆäÓÅÊÆÒÀÈ»»¹²»¿ÉºöÂÔ¡£[70]ͬÑùµÄÓÅÊÆÒ²¿É½âÊÍ×î½ü³öÏÖµÄÏÖÏó£ºÓªÀûÐÔ˽È˾À·×½â¾öÊÂÎñËù(private for profit dispute resolution firms)ºÍ¡°Æ¸Çë·¨¹Ù¡±(rent-a-judge)ÖÆ¶È¡£

ƸÇë·¨¹Ù֮˾·¨

¼ÓÖÝÔçÔÚ1872Äê¾Í´æÔÚµÄÒ»Ïî³ÉÎÄ·¨¹æ¶¨£¬ÕùÒéµ±ÊÂÈËÓÐȨÔÚËûÃÇ¿ÉÑ¡ÔñµÄÈκβÃÅÐÕßÃæÇ°£¬»ñµÃ³ä·ÖµÄ·¨Í¥ÌýÉó¡£[71]ÔÚ1980Ä꣬¼ÓÖݵĹ«¹²·¨Ôº¾Í»ýѹÁË70000×ÚÉóǰ³ÙÑÓÆ½¾ù³¬¹ý50¸öԵݸ¼þ¡£Òò´Ë£¬µ±Ï£Íû¿ìËÙ½â¾öÒ»×Ú¸´ÔÓÉÌʰ¸¼þµÄ¶þλÂÉʦ¡°ÖØÐ·¢ÏÖ¡±ÕâÒ»·¨ÂÉʱ£¬¾ÍºÁ²»ÁîÈ˾ªÆæ£»ËûÃÇÕÒµ½Ò»Î»ÔڸþÀ·×ÁìÓò¾ßÓÐר³¤µÄÍËÐÝ·¨¹Ù£¬°´´úÀíÈË·ÑÂÊÏòÆäÖ§¸¶±¨³ê£¬ÕâΪËûÃǵĵ±ÊÂÈ˽ÚÊ¡ÁË´óÁ¿Ê±¼äºÍ¾Þ¶î·ÑÓᣠ×Ô´Ó1980ÄêÒÔÀ´¾ÍûÓмÆËã¹ýƸÇë·¨¹ÙÉóÀí°¸¼þµÄÊýÁ¿£¬µ«¾ÝÂåɼí¶Ïظ߼¶·¨Ôº*ÃñÊÂͥЭµ÷È˹À¼Æ£¬¸ÃÖÆ¶ÈÔÚËüÃÇÏØÔË×÷µÄÍ·ÎåÄêÀÊý°Ù×Ú¾À·×¾ÍÊÇÕâÑù½â¾öµÄ¡£´ó¶àÊý˽È˰¸¼þÉæ¼°¸´ÔÓµÄÉÌʾÀ·×£¬µ±ÊÂÈ˶¼¡°¸Ðµ½¹«¹²·¨Ôº²»¿ÉÄÜ¿ì½Ý²¢Êʵ±µØ¡±ÉóÀí¡£[72]˽È˲ÃÅУ¨private judging£©Èç½ñÕýÊÇÒ»ÖÖ²»¶Ï·¢Õ¹µÄÐÐÒµ£¬ºá¿çÕû¸ö¹ú¼Ò¡£È·Êµ£¬ÔÚ¹ýÈ¥µÄ¼¸ÄêÖУ¬Êý¸öÓªÀûÐÔ˽ÈË[¾À·×½â¾ö]ÊÂÎñËù½øÈëÁ˺ü¸¸öÖݵÄ˾·¨Êг¡¡£[73]¾¡¹Ü¼ÓÖݵķ¨ÂÉÒÔ¼°ÆäËûÖݵ¿ÀàËÆ·¨ÂÉ£¬½«Ë½ÈË·¨¹ÙµÄ²Ã¾öÊÓΪÖٲòþö£¬µ«ÕâһȫеÄÖÆ¶ÈÓ봫ͳµÄÖÙ²ÃÖ®¼ä»¹ÊÇ´æÔÚһЩ΢ÃîµÄ²î±ð¡£Ê×ÏÈ£¬Ò»Ð©ÖݵÄ˽È˺ÍÊÂÎñËùÏÖÕýÔÚ»ý¼«µØÌṩËûÃǵķ¨¹Ù·þÎñÒÔ»ñÈ¡ÀûÈ󣬵ڶþ£¬ÏÈǰÔÚºÏͬÖÐÉ趨µÄÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿îÔÚ½«¾À·×ÄÉÈëÕâЩ˽ÈË·¨Í¥Ê±²¢²»Æð×÷Óá£[74]¶øÇÒÕâЩ·¨Í¥ÕýÔÚÀ©ÕÅ·¶Î§£¬Ä⿼ÂǺ­¸Ç·ÇÉÌʾÀ·×Ö®½â¾ö£¬ÈçͬÕâЩ¾À·×ÊÇ˽È˾À·×½â¾öµÄÆäËûÀ´Ô´ÄÇÑù¡£

½â¾ö·ÇÉÌʾÀ·×֮˽ÈË·¨Í¥

ÔÚ¹ýÈ¥¼¸ÄêÖУ¬Ë½ÈË·¨Í¥¾ÍÒÑ´æÔÚ²¢½â¾öÁËÐí¶àÃñʾÀ·×¡£ÀýÈ磬ӪÀûÐÔ˽ÈË·¨Í¥Èç½ñÕýÔÚ¿¼ÂǰüÄÉÖîÈçÀë»éµÈÊÂÏÉèÁ¢²ÎÓëÐÍ·¨Í¥µ÷½â»òÖÙ²ÃÏû·ÑÕßͶËß¡¢±£ÏÕË÷ÅâµÈ¾À·×¡£Ë½È˲¿ÃÅÔںܴó³Ì¶ÈÉÏÉÐδ½øÈëÐÌÊÂÉóÅÐÁìÓò£¬µ«´ËÖÖ¶¯ÏòÓпÉÄÜÖ®¼£Ïó¡£ ·Ç˾·¨¾À·×½â¾öÖ®»ù±¾¼¼ÊõÊǵ÷½âºÍÖٲá£[75]µ÷½âÉæ¼°ÎÞÀûº¦¹ØÏµµÚÈýÈ˰ïÖúÕùÒéË«·½µ±ÊÂÈË´ï³ÉËûÃÇ×Ô¼ºµÄЭÒé¡£ÎÞÀûº¦¹ØÏµÈ˱»ÊÚȨ¾ö¶¨¾À·×Ö®½á¹û£¬¾ÍÕâÒ»ÒâÒå¶øÑÔ£¬ÖÙ²ÃÓ빫¹²·¨ÔººÍ˽ÈËÉÌÊ·¨Í¥Ï൱¡£µ÷½âͨ³£Éæ¼°¸÷·½µ±ÊÂÈË×÷³öÈò½´ï³ÉÍ×Э£¬¶ø´ÓͬµÈÒâÒåÀ´Ëµ£¬Ò»Î»ÖÙ²ÃÔ±¾Í²»±ØÑ°ÇóÍ×Э¡ª¡ªËû»ùÓÚÕùÒéË«·½µ±ÊÂÈËÌá³öµÄ°¸¼þÖ®ÊÇ·ÇÇúÖ±À´×÷³ö²Ã¾ö¡£·Ç˾·¨µÄµ÷½âºÍÖٲù㷺ӦÓÃÓÚÉÌʺÍÏû·ÑÕß¾À·×¡¢ÀÍ×ʹØÏµ¡¢ÁÚÀïºÍ¼ÒÍ¥²»ºÍ¡¢ÉõÖÁ»·¾³³åÍ»ÁìÓòÖ®ÖС£ »·¾³[³åÍ»]µ÷½âÖ®ÀýÖ¤ÓÈÆäÒýÈ˹Ø×¢£¬²¢¶Ô´«Í³ÖÇʶÌá³öÁËÖÊÒÉ£¬¼´Ëùν¡°ÍⲿÐÔ¡±µÄ´æÔÚÒªÇóÕþ¸®¸ÉÔ¤£¬ÒòΪ˽È˲¿Ãź͸öÈËÎÞ·¨½â¾ö´ËÀàÎÊÌâ¡£¶øÏ൱ÓÐȤµÄÊÇ£¬»·¾³¾À·×Ô½À´Ô½¶àµØÍ¨¹ý˽È˵÷½âÀ´½â¾ö¡£ÏÖÓÐÐí¶à»·¾³¾À·×³É¹¦µ÷½âÖ®·¶Àý£¬°üÀ¨£º(1)ÃåÒòÖÝÒ»ºþ±ßÉçÇøÓë¿ØÖÆË®Î»µÄË®µçÕ¾´ï³ÉµÄÓйØË®Î»Ïß֮ЭÒ飻(2)ÂíÈøÖîÈûÖÝÒ»´óÐ͵糧Ðè´ÓÉÕ£¨½ø¿Ú£©ÓÍת»»µ½ÉÕ£¨¹úÄÚ£©ÃºÖ®Ð­Ò飻(3)Íþ˹¿µÐÇÖÝÒ»´¦³ÇÊÐÀ¬»øÑÚÂñѡַ¾À·×Ö®½â¾ö£»(4)ÔÚÃÜËÕÀïÖÝÑØÒ»¶Î·ÏÆúÌú·֧Ïß½¨Á¢Ò»ÌõÓéÀÖרÏߣ»ÒÔ¼°(5)ÓйØÄÏ¿¨ÂÞÁÖÄÉÖݸ¥ÀÊÎ÷˹¡¤ÂíÁÖ£¨Francis Marion£©¹ú¼ÒÉ­ÁÖÒ»Ï·¥¼Æ»®¾À·×µÄ½â¾ö£¬¸Ã¼Æ»®»áÍþвϡÓеı´¿ËÂüݺ£¨Backman's warbler£©Ö®ÆÜÏ¢µØ²¢Òò´Ë¿ÉÄܵ¼ÖÂÆäÃð¾ø¡£ÕâЩÒÔ¼°ÆäËû³É¹¦µ¼ÖÂһЩ¹Û²ì¼ÒÃǵóöÈçϽáÂÛ£º¡°ËßËÏÕýÊÇȱ·¦Ð§Âʵġ£´æÔÚ×ÅÁîÈËÄÑÒÔÖÃÐÅÖ®³ÙÑÓ£¬³É±¾¸ß°º£¬ÉõÖÁµ±Ò»Ð©È˱»Ðû¸æÊ¤Ëßʱ£¬²¢²»»á¸Ðµ½ËûÊÇһλӮ¼Ò¡£¡±[76]ÀýÈ磬·¨ÔºµÄ²ÃÅпÉÄÜÖ»ÊÇÒÀijЩÏÁ°¯µÄ¼¼ÊõÒªµã×÷³ö£¬»ù±¾ÎÊÌâÈÔÐü¶øÎ´¾ö£¬Òò´ËÕâÖÖʤÀûʵ¼ÊÉÏÊǺÁÎÞÒâÒåµÄ¡£½ø¶ø£¬¶Ô¿¹Ê½·¨ÔºÌåÖÆ²¢²»Ñ°ÇóÒ»ÖÖË«·½µ±ÊÂÈ˽Ô×ÔԸͬÒâÖ®Í×Э£»ËüÇ¿¼ÓÒ»ÖÖÖÁÉÙÒ»·½¡¢ÒÖ»òË«·½½Ô²»ÂúÒâµÄ½â¾ö·½°¸£¬ÊÂʵÉÏÕâԤʾ×ÅδÀ´µÄ³åÍ»¡£ µ÷½âÈË¿ÉÄÜ»á²ÉÈ¡Ðí¶à²»Í¬µÄÐж¯£¬°üÀ¨ÕÙ¼¯Éæ¼°¾À·×¸÷ÍÅÌåÖ®¼äµÄ»áÒ飬ÔÚ¸÷ÍÅÌå¼ä´«µÝÐÅÏ¢£¬×÷ΪÊÂʵ²éÃ÷Õߣ¬ÒÔ¼°Ìá³ö½¨Òé¡£ËùÓдËÀàÐж¯Ö®»ù±¾Ä¿µÄÔÚÓÚ£¬Í¨¹ý̸Åйý³ÌÖеÄЭÖú£¬°ïÖúµ±ÊÂÈË´ï³ÉÒ»¸öÏ໥ºÏÒâÖ®Í×Э¡£´ËÍ⣬µ÷½â»¹¾ßÓÐÆäËûÓÅÊÆ¡£Ê×ÏÈ£¬Ëü¿ÉÓÃÀ´Ê¹µ±ÊÂÈ˰ѽ¹µã¼¯ÖÐÔÚÕæÕýµÄÕùÒéÎÊÌâÉÏ¡£ÀýÈ磬ÔÚÍþ˹¿µÐÇÖݰ¬°Â¿ËÀ³¶û£¨Eau Claire£©Ò»¸öÀ¬»øÑÚÂñѡַÖÊÖ¤»áÉÏ£¬¸÷ÖÖÍÅÌå¶ÔËù½¨Ò鵨µãµÄ»·¾³Ó°ÏìÉùÃ÷Ö®Êʵ±ÐÔÕùÂÛ²»ÐÝ¡£ÕâЩÕùÂÛ¿´ÆðÀ´¼¯ÖÐÔÚ¶ÔË®ÎÛȾµÄ¹Ø×¢ÉÏ£¬ÒòΪÄÇÊÇÒ»¸öÔÚÕþÖÎÎę̀ÉÏ¿ÉÄÜÎüÒý×¢ÒâµÄÎÊÌ⡣Ȼ¶ø£¬µ÷½âÈËÔòʶ±ðÈ·¶¨ÁËÕæÕýµÄÀûº¦¹ØÏµ¡ª¡ªÕâÒ»³¡Ëù½«ÈçºÎÔË×÷£¬ºÎʱ¿ª·Å£¬Ë­¿ÉʹÓ㬺ÎÖÖ¿¨³µ¿É½øÈ룬ÒÔ¼°ÔÚ±¥ºÍʱ¸Ã³¡Ëù»á·¢Éúʲô¡£Ò»µ©Ãè»æ³öÕæÕý¹Ø×¢µÄÎÊÌ⣬ֻÓÃÁËÈý´Î»áÒé¾Í´ï³ÉÁËЭÒ飬ЭÒéÏòÁÚÈ˱£Ö¤£¬¸Ã³¡Ëù½«ÒÔÒ»ÖֿɽÓÊܵķ½Ê½ÔË×÷¡£[77]

ÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾ö

ÔÚ1970Äê´úºÍ1980Äê´ú³õÆÚ£¬ÃÀ¹úÖÙ²ÃЭ»áÈÕ񾃾×ãÖîÈçÁÚÀﶷŹ¡¢Î´³ÉÄêÈË·¸×ïµÈÇá΢ÐÌʾÀ·×ºÍÃñʾÀ·×¡£[78]µ±Ô½À´Ô½¶àµÄÁÚÀïÒâʶµ½ÖٲúÍ/»òµ÷½âµÄÓÅÊÆÊ±£¬ÃÀ¹úÖÙ²ÃЭ»áµÄÉçÇø¾À·×²¿¾Í³ÉΪ·¢Õ¹×î¿ìµÄ²¿ÃÅ¡£

T¡¤S¡¤µË¶÷²®¸ñºÍR¡¤V¡¤µË¶÷²®¸ñÖ¸³ö£¬×Ô1960Äê´ú£¬Öٲú͵÷½âÓ¦ÓÃÓÚ´óÁ¿µÄÏîÄ¿¼Æ»®Ö®ÖУ¬ÒÔ½â¾ö¡°·¨Ôº¿ÉÄÜ·¢ÏÖÌ«¹ýËöËé¡¢»òÌ«ÁîÈËÄÑÒÔ×½ÃþµÄ³åÍ»£º¼ÒÍ¥²»ºÍ¡¢ÁÚÀïĦ²Á¡¢ÒÔ¼°ÖÖ×åÍÅÌåÖ®¼äÀàËÆµÄ³ðÊÓ¡£¡±[79]ÉçÇø¾À·×ÏîÄ¿ÒÑÔÚÂåÉ¼í¶¡¢·Ñ³Ç¡¢¿°ÈøË¹³Ç¡¢ÑÇÌØÀ¼´ó¡¢¾É½ðɽ¡¢Âõ°¢ÃÜ¡¢²¨Ê¿¶Ù¡¢¼ÓµÇ³Ç¡¢Å¦Ô¼¡¢ÒÔ¼°¿ËÀû·òÀ¼µÃµ½ÁË·¢Õ¹¡£ÕâЩÏîÄ¿±»Éè¼Æ³É£¬Í¨¹ýÀûÓÃÀ´×ÔÁÚÀïµÄÖ¾Ô¸Õ߳䵱µ÷½âÈË£¨ÓÐʱΪÖÙ²ÃÔ±£©Ñ°Çó¾À·×Ö®Í×Э·½°¸¡£ÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾öµÄ³«µ¼ÕßÃÇ£¬ÀýÈçÒÑ·¢Æð¶à¸öÏîÄ¿µÄ¸£ÌØ»ù½ð»á¸±×ܲÃÖ¸³ö£¬¶ÔÓÚ´ó¶àÊý´ËÀà¾À·×£¬·¨ÔºÍ¨³£²¢·ÇÒ»¸öºÏÊʵij¡Ëù£¬ÒòΪ·¨Ôº´¦ÓÚÒ»ÖÖ¶Ô¿¹Ê½µÄ»·¾³£¬¿ÉÕùÒéÕßʵ¼ÊÉϲ¢·Ç¶ÔÊÖ£¬ËûÃÇÖ»ÊÇÅäż¡¢ÅóÓÑ¡¢ÇéÈË¡¢Ç×ÆÝ»òÕßÁÚ¾Ó¡£

È»¶ø£¬ÕâЩÏîÄ¿½üÀ´Õý³¬³öÁË´ËÀà¾À·×£¬ÒÑ¿ªÊ¼Éæ×ãÐÌÊÂʼþ¡£ÔÚÀ´×ÔÂåÉ¼í¶µÄÒ»¸öÀý×ÓÖУ¬Ò»Î»ÑÇÒáÔÓ»õµêÖ÷¿Ø¸æÒ»ÃûÇÀ½ÙÆäµêÆÌµÄºÚÈËÇàÄê¡£µêÖ÷²»Ô¸¾¯·½½éÈ룬ÒòΪËûÏ£Íû±ÜÃâÓëºÚÈ˹˿͵ÄÊèÔ¶¡£[80]ÔÚÁíÒ»¸ö°¸ÀýÖУ¬Ò»Î»Î´³ÉÄêÇÔÔôͬÒâ´ÓÊÂ20¸öСʱµÄÇå½à¹¤×÷×÷ΪÅâ³¥¡£

·Ñ³ÇµÄÃÀ¹úÖÙ²ÃЭ»á·¢ÆðÁË×îÔçµÄÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾öÏîĿ֮һ¡£¹ý¶ÈÓµ¼·µÄ·¨Ôº1969Äê¾Í¿ªÊ¼½«Çá΢µÄÐÌʰ¸¼þ·ÖÁ÷ÖÁ¸Ã˽ÈË·¨Í¥¡£ËüÃǵijɹ¦ÕæÕýΪÇá΢ÐÌʰ¸¼þµ¼ÈëÕâЩÁÚÀï˾·¨ÖÐÐÄÌṩÁ˶¯Á¦¡£

ÉÏÎÄËùÊöÉçÇø»ù´¡µÄ¾À·×½â¾öÖÆ¶ÈÖ®Ò»£¨ÊÂʵÉÏÊǺü¸¸ö£¬ÒòΪ·Ñ³ÇÏîÄ¿³ÉΪÆäËû¸ü¶àÉçÇøÖ®µä·¶£©Éæ¼°µ½·¨ÔºµÄ°²ÅÅ£¬ÕâÒ»ÊÂʵ°µÊ¾×Å£¬ÆäÖÐһЩ°²ÅÅʵ¼ÊÉϲ¢·Ç˽ÈË×ÔÔ¸¶Ô¹«¹²·¨ÔºµÄÌæ´úÐÔÑ¡Ôñ¡£µÄÈ·£¬ÕâЩÏîÄ¿ÖÐÓÐÈô¸É¸ö£¬ÔÚËüÃǵķ¢Õ¹¡¢ÈÚ×ʺ͹ÜÀí·½Ãæ½ÔÐèʵÖÊÐÔµÄÕþ¸®½ÇÉ«¡£µ±Áª°î×ÊÖú³·»ØÊ±£¬ÌÈÈôÄÇЩÕþ¸®Ö§³ÖµÄÏîÄ¿½«Ç°¹¦¾¡ÆúµÄ»°£¬ÕýÈç¹ýÈ¥¼¸ÄêÄÇÑù£¬ÄÇô£¬Ò»Ð©¹Û²ì¼ÒÃÇ»òÐí¾Í»áµÃ³öÒÔϽáÂÛ£º´ËÖÖʧ°Ü·´Ó³ÁË˽È˲¿ÃÅÎÞÁ¦ÌṩÒÔÁÚÀï»òÉçÇøÎª»ù´¡µÄ¾À·×½â¾ö·þÎñ¡£Òò´Ë£¬ÔÚÕâµãÉϳÐÈÏ´ËÀàʧ°Ü֮DZÔÚÐÔ£¬ÒÔ¼°Ç¿µ÷ÈôÊÇ·¢Éúʧ°Ü£¬ÄÇҲʮÓа˾ŷ´Ó³Á˹«¹²¹ÙÔ±½éÈëÆä·¢Õ¹ºÍ¹ÜÀíÖÐËùÇ¿¼Ó¸øÄÇÐ©ÌØ¶¨µÄ¡¢ÒÔÉçÇøÎª»ù´¡µÄÖÆ¶ÈÖ®ÌØÕ÷£¬¾ÍËÆºõ˳Àí³ÉÕ¡£

¡°ÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾ö¡±°²ÅÅDZÔÚµÄʧ°Ü£ºË½È˲¿ÃÅÒÖ»òÕþ¸®Ö®Ê§°Ü£¿

¡°Ìæ´úÐÔ¾À·×½â¾ö»úÖÆ¡±£¨ADR£©µÄ¸ÅÄ³¤ÆÚÒÔÀ´Ò»Ö±ÊÇ·¨Âɸĸï¼ÒÃǹØ×¢Ö®½¹µã£¬¶ø×÷Ϊ·¨ÔºÓµ¼·µÄÒ»¼ÁDZÔÚ¾ÈÊÀÁ¼·½£¬Ò²Í¬ÑùµÃµ½ÁËÃÀ¹úÂÉʦЭ»áºÍ·¨¹ÙÃǵÄÍÆ³ç¡£ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬Ôںܴó³Ì¶ÈÉÏÕâÒ»·¢Õ¹µÄÕæÕý¶¯Á¦£¬×îÖÕ²¢·ÇÀ´×ÔÓÚΪÇîÈ˺ÍÉÙÊýÃñ×åѰÇóÕýÒåµÄ¸Ä¸ï¼¤½ø·Ö×Ó£¬¶øÊÇÔ¨Ô´ÓÚÂÉʦºÍ·¨¹ÙÁ½·½Ãæ¶Ô¹«¹²·¨ÔºÏµÍ³µÄÎÞЧÂÊÕýÑݱäΪ²»¿ÉÊÕʰ֮¹²Ê¶¡£[81]½á¹û£¬ÂÉʦºÍ·¨¹ÙÃÇ¿ªÊ¼ÎªµÍÊÕÈëºÍÉÙÊýÃñ×åÁÚÀïÉçÇøÉè¼ÆÐµĵ÷½â³ÌÐò£¬Å¬Á¦·ÖÁ÷¹«¹²·¨ÔºÊÓΪ¡°Çá΢¡±ºÍ¡°²»ÊʺÏÉóÅС±Ö®¾À·×¡£Ë¾·¨²¿ÒÑ·¢Æð²¢×ÊÖúÁËÐí¶à£¨µ«²¢·ÇÈ«²¿£©ÐÂÐÍÁÚÀï˾·¨ÖÐÐÄ¡£È»¶ø£¬¾ßÓзí´ÌÒâζµÄÊÇ£¬ÕâÖÖÖ§³Öͨ¹ý½«ËüÃDZä³ÉÏÖÐÐ˾·¨ÖƶÈÖ®¸½ÊôÎÇãÏòÓÚ·Á°­ÕâЩÏîÄ¿µÄ³É¹¦¡£[82]¾ÍÐí¶àÁÚÀï˾·¨ÖÐÐĶøÑÔ£¬Êµ¼ÊÉÏËùÓа¸¼þ½ÔÓÉ·¨¹Ù»ò¼ì²ì¹Ù½»°ì¡£¡°ÉçÇø¡±³ÉÔ±¼«ÉÙ»á×ÔÔ¸½«ËûÃǵľÀ·×Ìá½»ÄÇЩÖÐÐÄ¡£ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬Ë¾·¨²¿ÔÚ1980ÄêµÄÒ»¸ö±¨¸æÖгÐÈÏ£¬ËüµÄºÃ¼¸¸öÏîÄ¿»ù±¾ÉÏÊôÓÚÆäËùÒÀ¸½·¨ÔºÖ®ÑÓÉ죬²¢ÇÒ£¬Óйذ¸¼þºÜÉÙ²úÉúÓÚÉçÇø×ÔÉí¡£[83]µ±ÓÉÒ»¸öÐÌÊÂ˾·¨»ú¹¹Ìá³ö½¨Òéʱ£¬[µ±ÊÂÈ˵Ä]²ÎÓëÉõÖÁ²¢²»Ê®·Ö×ÔÔ¸¡£ÕýÈçD¡¤I¡¤ÏÄÆÕµÂ£¨D. I. Sheppard£©µÈÈËÖ¸³ö£¬¼ì²ì¹ÙºÍÐÌÊÂ˾·¨ÌåϵÖÐÆäËû¹ÙÔ±ÏòÖ¾Ô¸ÕßÌá³öµÄ¡°½¨Ò顱£¬ÊÇ¡°¼«¾ß˵·þÁ¦µÄ¡±£»¡°Ç¿ÖÆÐÔѹÁ¦Ö®Î¢ÃîÐÎʽ£¨¾ÍÏóÌÈÈôijÈËδµ½Í¥½«ÓèÒÔÐÌÊÂ¼ì¿ØÖ®ÍþвÄÇÑù£©ÏµÊ¹°¸¼þÊýÁ¿´ïµ½Ï൱¹æÄ£µÄÖØÒªÒòËØ¡£¡±[84]Òò´Ë£¬ÄÇЩËùνµÄ¡°ÁÚÀï¾À·×½â¾ö¡±°²ÅŸù±¾¾Í²»ÊÇÒÔÁÚÀïΪ»ù´¡µÄ¡£¸ü׼ȷµØËµ£¬ËüÃDZ»ÊÓΪÕþ¸®Ë¾·¨ÌåÖÆµÄÒ»²¿·Ö¡£µ÷½âÈË¿ÉÄÜÊÇÉçÇøµÄÖ¾Ô¸Õߣ¨ÔÚÕâЩÏîÄ¿ÖÐÐí¶àÈËÊÇÂÉʦ»ò·¨Ñ§ÔºÑ§Éú£¬²¢²»±ØÐëÊÇÀ´×ÔÁÚÀïÖ®ÈË£©£¬Òò´Ë¸³ÓèÕâÖÖ³ÌÐòÒ»¶¨µÄ˽È˲¿ÃÅÖ®±íÏ󣬵«¾À·×µ±ÊÂÈ˲¢·Ç×ÔÔ¸Ö®ÈË£¬¹ÊÏîÄ¿µÄ´ìÕÛ²¢²»Ó¦ÊÓΪ˽È˲¿ÃŵÄʧ°Ü¡£ ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬Óгä·ÖµÄÀíÓÉÔ¤ÆÚ£¬Èç¹û²»ÔËÓÃÇ¿ÖÆÁ¦£¬´ËÀలŎ«²»ÄÜÎüÒý¾À·×¡£ÈÃÎÒÃÇ»ØÏëһϣ¬»¥»ÝÕýÊdzÐÈÏÉÌÈË·¨ºÍ·þ´ÓÉÌÈË·¨Í¥Ö®»ù´¡¡£´ËÖÖ»¥»ÝÎÞÐèÒÔÉÌÒµÀûÒæÎª»ù´¡¡£Ëü¿ÉÒÔ½¨Á¢ÔÚ¼ÒÍ¥¡¢ÖÖ×åÍÅÌå¡¢×ڽ̻òÁÚÀïÁªÏµÖ®ÉÏ£¨Ò²¿ÉÒÔ¹¹½¨ÓÚ·ÇÉÌÒµÆõÔ¼ÉÏ£¬ÖîÈçÁÚÀïЭ»á£©£¬µ«ËüÃDZØÐëÊÇ×ÔÔ¸µÄ¡£[85]¶øÓë´ËÏà¶Ô£¬¾¡¹Ü˾·¨²¿µÄÏîÄ¿ÒÔµØÀíÉϽüÁÚΪÆäÌØÕ÷Ö®Ò»£¬µ«´ó¶àÊýÔÚÈκÎÒâÒåÉϽԷǾßÓл¥»ÝÁªÏµÖ®Í¬ÖÊÐÔÉçÇø¡£ÀýÈ磬ÂåÉ¼í¶µÄÏîÄ¿¾Í¶¨Î»ÓÚÒ»¸öȱ·¦¹²Í¬Ä¿±êºÍ¼ÛÖµ¹ÛµÄ¶àÖÖ×åÁÚÀïÉçÇøÖ®Á÷¶¯ÈË¿ÚÖС£[86]ȷʵ£¬ÈËÀàѧ¼ÒÀÍÀ­¡¤Äɵ¶û£¨Laura Nader£©1979Äê¾ÍÔ¤ÑÔ£¬Ë¾·¨²¿ÉèÁ¢µÄÁÚÀï¾À·×ÖÐÐĽ«»áÖ¤Ã÷ÊÇ˾·¨ÌåÖÆ±×¶Ë²¹¾ÈµÄ²»Ç¡µ±·½·¨£¬ÒòΪÕþ¸®¶Ô·¨Âɺͷ¨ÂÉÖ´ÐеĿØÖÆÔçÒÑ¡°·Á°­ÁËÉçÇø¡±¡£[87]½ü¼¸¸öÊÀ¼ÍÒÔÀ´£¬°éËæ¹«¹²¾¯²ìºÍ·¨Ôº¿ØÖƵIJ»¶ÏÇ¿»¯£¬µ÷½â¶Ô´ËÀàÏîÄ¿Òâͼ½â¾öµÄ¾À·×ÀàÐÍÊÇÈç´ËİÉú£¬ÒÔÖÁÓÚÐí¶àÈËÉõÖÁ²»³ÐÈÏ»¥»ÝÀûÒæÖ®Ç±ÔÚ¿ÉÄÜÐÔ¡£

½ø¶ø£¬ÕýÈç°Â¶û°ÍºÕ£¨Auerbach£©ËùµÃ³öµÄ½áÂÛ£¬×ÝʹÄܽ¨Á¢±ØÒªµÄÒÔ»¥»ÝΪ»ù´¡µÄÉçÇø£¬¡°ÐµÄ˾·¨ÖÐÐÄ¡­¡­Ò²½«Ãæ¶ÔÕûºÏÉçÇø×ÔÖÎÓë˾·¨¿ØÖƵIJ»¿ÉÄܵÄÖØÈΡ£¡±[88]ÀýÈ磬

[ÔÚ¶à¶ûÇÐË¹ÌØ]´´Á¢³ÇÊз¨Í¥µÄ·¨Âɸĸï¼ÒÃÇ£¬ÖÂÁ¦ÓÚÉçÇø¶ÔÖ¼ÔÚÖÎÓúºÍµ÷ºÍ¡¢¶ø·Ç¹ÂÁ¢ºÍ³Í·£Ö®¾À·×½â¾ö³ÌÐòµÄ»ý¼«²ÎÓë¡£µ«¸ÃµØÇø·¨ÔºÊ×ϯ·¨¹Ù¶Ô·ÇרҵÊÐÃñ²ÎÓë¾À·×½â¾öÆ«ºÃÓÚµ÷½â¡¢ÒÔÂú×ãÆä×Ô¼º·¨Í¥Ð§ÂÊÐèÇóÖ®×÷·¨£¬±í´ïÁËÇ¿Áҵı£ÁôÒâ¼û¡£µØÇø·¨ÔºÈ«ÌåÈËԱͨ¹ý¶ÔÁ÷Ïòµ÷½âµÄ°¸¼þ½øÐпØÖƺÍ×èÖ¹×ÔÉú×Ô·¢µÄ°¸¼þ£¬¶ø°þ¶áÁ˵÷½â·¨Í¥µÄ¶ÀÁ¢´æÔÚ¡£¡°ÉçÇø¡±µ÷½âÒÑΪ[¹Ù·½]²ÃÅÐËùÎüÊÕ¡­¡­Ëæ×ŵØÇø·¨ÔºÊ×ϯ·¨¹ÙµÄã·ã·²»°²¡ª¡ªÎ¨¿Ö˾·¨¿ØÖÆÒòÀ´×ÔËû×Ô¼º·¨ÔºÖ®Æ«Ïò¶øÍ×Э£¬µ÷½â»¬ÈëÁ˸ĸï¼ÒÃÇÐû³ÆµÄ¡°ÉçÇø¡±Óëµ±µØ·¨¹Ù˾·¨È¨Ö®¼äµÄÖÆ¶ÈÐÔÁÑ·ìÖС£[89]

´ËÀà¡°¸Ä¸ï¡±µÄʧ°Ü£¬²¢·ÇÒòΪËüÃÇÊô˽È˲¿ÃŵÄÑ¡Ôñ£¬¶øÊÇÒòΪËüÃÇÖ»ÊÇÕþ¸®¿ØÖÆÓйط¨ÂÉÖ´ÐеÄÖÆ¶ÈÐÔ°²ÅÅÖ®Ò»²¿·Ö¡£ËüÃǵķ¨ÂÉȨÍþÍêÈ«ÒÀÀµÓÚ¶Ô¹Ù·½·¨Ôº¼°ÆäÇ¿ÖÆÁ¦µÄ¸½Êô¡£

ÕâÄѵÀÒâζ×ÅÃñ¼äµ÷½âºÍ/»òÖٲöÔÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾ö²¢·ÇÒ»ÖÖ¿ÉÐеÄÌæ´úÐÔÑ¡Ôñ£¿¾ø¶Ô²»ÊÇ¡£ÔÚÎȶ¨µÄÁÚÀï¼ä½¨Á¢»ùÓÚ¶Ô»¥»ÝµÄ×ÔÔ¸ÈÏͬ¶ø·ÇÕþ¸®Ç¿ÖÆÖ®ÉçÇø¾À·×½â¾öÖÐÐÄ£¬¿ÉÄÜ»áÈ¡µÃ³É¹¦¡£µÄÈ·£¬´ËÀàµ÷½âÖÆ¶È±¾ÊÀ¼Í*ÔÚÃÀ¹ú¼¸¸ö³ÇÊеÄÓÌÌ«È˺ͻªÈËÉçÇøÖж¼µÃµ½Á˹㷺·¢Õ¹¡£[90]´Ë´¦ÌÖÂÛµÄÐí¶àÏîÄ¿½ÔÓÉÕþ¸®·¢Æð£¬²¢Ö÷ÒªÊÇΪ¹Ù·½ÉóÅгÌÐòÖеĴóÍæ¼Ò£¨·¨¹Ù¡¢Ë½ÈËÂÉʦºÍ¼ì²ì¹Ù£©Ö®ÀûÒæ¶øÉè¼ÆµÄ¡£´ËÀàÏîĿ֮Âä¿Õ£¬²¢²»Òâζ×ÅÕæÕýΪDZÔÚµÄÕùÒéµ±ÊÂÈËÀûÒæÉè¼ÆµÄÆäËûÖÆ¶È»áʧ°Ü¡£

½áÂÛ

¸öÈ˱ØÐëÃæ¶Ô×ñÊØ·¨ÂÉ¡¢ÒÔ¼°Òò·¨ÂɶøÉú¾À·×ʱ½ÓÊÜ·¨Ôº²Ã¾öÖ®¼¤ÀøÒòËØ¡£¼¤ÀøÒòËØµÄÀ´Ô´Ö®Ò»¾ÍÊÇÕþ¸®µÄÇ¿ÖÆ£¬µ«ÄDz¢·ÇΨһÀ´Ô´¡£Èç¹ûÈϿɷ¨ÂɵÄȨÍþ´æÔÚÃ÷ÏԵĸöÈËÊÕÒæ£¬ÔòÈËÃǾͿÉÄܱ»Ëµ·þ×ñ´Ó·¨ÂÉ¡£¶ÔÖÐÊÀ¼ÍºÍÏÖ´úÉÌÈË·¨µÄ¿¼²ì±íÃ÷£¬Õþ¸®µÄ·¨Âɺ͹ٷ½µÄ·¨Ôº¶ÔÓÚ¹¹½¨Ò»ÖÖÓÐЧµÄ·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶È²¢²»±ØÐè¡£¸öÈËÖ»ÊDZØÐëÒª¸ÐÊܵ½²ÎÓëÒ»ÖÖ×ÔÔ¸²úÉúµÄ·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶ÈÖ®»¥»ÝÀûÒæ¡£´ËÖÖ»¥»Ý¿ÉÄÜÒòÊг¡½»Ò×¶ø²úÉú£¬ÕýÈçÒÀ¾ÝÉÌÈË·¨ÄÇÑù£¬µ«Ò²¿ÉÄÜͨ¹ýÇ×Êô¹ØÏµ»ò×Ú½ÌÁª½á¶ø²úÉú£¬ÒÖ»ò×÷ΪÆäËûÏ໥ÀûÒæÖ®½á¹û£¨±ÈÈ磬ÁÚÀïÉùÓþ£¬×¡Õ¬ËùÓÐÕßЭ»á£©¡£Òò´Ë£¬ÉÌÈË·¨³É¹¦Ö®Ô­ÒòÒÔ¼°Õþ¸®Á¦Í¼Ó°ÏìÆäÑÝ»¯Ö®³åÍ»£¬Îª¸üºÃµØÀí½âijЩÏÖ´úÌæ´úÐÔ¾À·×½â¾ö»úÖÆµÄ³É¹¦ºÍÁíһЩ»úÖÆÇ±ÔÚµÄʧ°ÜÌṩÁËÏàµ±ÖØÒªµÄ¶´²ì¡£Ö»ÒªÌæ´úÐÔ¾À·×½â¾ö»úÖÆ²úÉúÓÚÒò¶ÔÆä·¨ÂÉȨÍþµÄÏ໥³ÐÈ϶ø×ÔԸ֮ѡÔñ£¬Ëü¾Í¿ÉÄÜÓÐЧ²¢ÒòÆä×ÔÉíÌØÕ÷¶ø´æÔÚÏÂÈ¥¡£ÁíÒ»·½Ã棬Èç¹ûÍⲿÈËÇ¿ÖÆÈËÃǽÓÊÜÌæ´úÐÔ¾À·×½â¾ö·½Ê½£¬ÇÒÆäȨÍþÀ´Ô´ÓÚ¶Ô¹Ù·½·¨ÔºÖ®ÒÀ¸½£¬ÄÇôËü¾ÍÖ»ÔÚ³ÖÐø²»¶ÏµÄÇ¿ÖÆºÍ×ÊÖú֮ϲſÉÄÜ´æÔÚ¡£

²Î¿¼ÎÄÏ×

Aiken, John R. "New Netherlands Arbitration in the 17th Century," Arbitration Journal 29 (June 1974): 145-160.

American Arbitration Association. Lawyers' Arbitration Letters, 1970-1979 ((New York: The Free Press, 1981).

Auerbach, Jerold S. Justice Without Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Benson, Bruce, L. "The Spontaneous Evolution of Commercial Law," Southern Economic Journal 55 (January, 1989): 644-661.

. The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without the State. San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute, 1990.

___________. "Reciprocal Exchange as the Basis for Recognition of Law: Examples from American History," Journal of Libertarian Studies, 10 (Fall 1991): 53-82.

__________. "Customary Law as a Social Contract: International Commercial Law," Constitutional Political Economy 2 (Winter 1992): 1-27.

___________. "Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitutes or Complements? An Exploration of the History of Arbitration and Arbitration Statutes in the United States," Department of Economics Working Paper No. 91-03-8, Florida State University, 1993.

___________. "The Impetus for Recognizing Private Property and Adopting Ethical Behavior in a Market Economy: Natural Law, Government Law, or Evolving Self-Interest," Review of Austrian Economics 6 (1993): 43-80.

Berman, Harold J. Law and Revolution: The Formation of Western Legal Tradition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.

__________, and Dasser, Felix J. "The "New" Law Merchant and the "Old": Sources, Content, and Legitimacy," in Thomas E. Carbonneau, ed. Lex Mercatoria and Arbitration: A Discussion of the New Law Merchant (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Transnational Juris Publications, Inc., 1990).

Cook, Roger F., et al. Neighborhood Justice Centers Field Test-Final Evaluation Report. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1980.

Denenberg, T. S., and Denenberg, R. V. Dispute Resolution: Settling Conflicts Without Legal Action, Public Affairs Pamphlet No. 597. New York: Public Affairs Committee, Inc., 1981.

Domke, Martin. Domke on Commercial Arbitration, Revised Edition by Gabriel M. Wiker (Willmette, Ill.: Gallaghen & Co., 1984).

Ellickson, Robert C. Order Without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).

Fuller, Lon. The Morality of Law. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964.

. The Principles of Social Order. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1981.

Greif, Avner. "Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade,"Journal of Economic History 49 (1989): 857-882.

Hayek, F. A. Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

. Law, Legislation, and Liberty, Vol. 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

Isaacs, Nathan. "Review of Wesley Sturges, Treatise on Commercial Arbitration and Awards," Yale Law Review (1930): 149-151.

Jones, William C. "Three Centuries of Commercial Arbitration in New York: A Brief Survey," Washington University Law Quarterly 1956 (February 1956): 193-221.

Koenig, Richard. "More Firms Turn to Private Courts to Avoid Expensive Legal Fights," Wall Street Journal (January 1984). Landes, William M. and Posner, Richard A. "Adjudication as a Private Good," Journal of Legal Studies (March 1979): 235-284.

Lazarus, Steven, et al. Resolving Business Disputes: The Potential of Commercial Arbitration. New York: American Management Association, 1965.

Levy, Jacob T. "The Transformation of Arbitration Law, 1835-1870: The Lessening of Judicial Hostility Towards Private Dispute Resolution," Mimeo, Brown University, May 1993.

Milgrom, Paul R.; North, Douglas C.; and Weingast, Barry R. "The Role of Institutions in the Revival of Trade: The Law Merchant, Private Judges, and the Champagne Fairs," Economics and Politics 2 (March 1990): 1-23.

Mitchell, W. Essay on the Early History of the Law Merchant. New York: Burt Franklin, 1904.

Murray, John S.; Rau, Alan Scott; and Sherman, Edward F. Processes of Dispute Resolution: the Role of Lawyers (Westbury, N.Y.: The Foundation Press, Inc., 1989).

Nader, Laura. "Comment," The Pound Conference: Perspectives on Justice in the Future. St. Paul: The Pound Conference, 1979, pp. 114-119.

Odiorne, George S. "Arbitration Under Early New Jersey Law," Arbitration Journal 8 (1953): 117-125.

__________. "Arbitration and Mediation Among the Early Quakers," Arbitration Journal 9 (1954): 161-169.

Poole, Robert W., Jr. Cutting Back City Hall.New York: Universe Books, 1978.

Pruitt, Gary. "California Rent-a-Judge Justice," Journal of Contemporary Studies (Spring 1982): 51-64.

Sheppard, D.I.; Roche, J.A.; and Cook, R.A. National Evaluation of the Neighborhood Justice Centers Field Test - Interim Report. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1979.

Smith, Joseph H. Colonial Justice in Western Massachusetts (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961).

Sturges, Wesley A. A Treatise on Commercial Arbitrations and Awards (Kansas City: Vernon Law Book Company, 1930).

Trakman, Leon E. The Law Merchant: The Evolution of Commercial Law. Littleton, CO: Fred B. Rotham & Co.,1983.

Willoughby, William F. Principles of Judicial Administration. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1929.

Wooldridge, William C. Uncle Sam, the Monopoly Man. New Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1970.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* ±¾ÎÄϵ´óÐÍÑо¿ÏîÄ¿¡°·¨ÂɵÄÑÝ»¯¡±µÄÒ»²¿·Ö£¬¸ÃÏîÄ¿ÓÉÁ½Ïî°¬¹þÌØ£¨Earhart£©Ñо¿»ù½ð×ÊÖú¡£±¾ÎIJ¿·ÖÄÚÈÝÔ´ÓÚ²¢À©Õ¹ÁËÎÒÈçÏÂÑо¿³É¹û£º¡°ÉÌ·¨µÄ×ÔÈ»ÑÝ»¯¡±£¬Southern Economic Journal 55 (January, 1989)£¬¡¶·¨ÂɵÄÊÂÒµ£ºÃ»Óйú¼ÒµÄÕýÒå¡·(San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute, 1990)£¬¡°×÷ΪһÖÖÉç»áÆõÔ¼µÄϰ¹ß·¨£º¹ú¼ÊÉÌ·¨¡±£¬Constitutional Political Economy 2 (Winter 1992)£¬ÒÔ¼°¡°Êг¡¾­¼ÃÖгÐÈÏ˽ÓвƲúºÍ½ÓÊܵÀµÂÐÐΪ֮¶¯Á¦£º×ÔÈ»·¨¡¢Õþ¸®·¨¡¢»òÑÝ»¯ÖеÄÀûÒÑÖ÷Ò塱£¬Review of Austrian Economics 6 (1993)¡£

** ²¼Â³Ë¹¡¤L¡¤±¾É­£¨BRUCE L. BENSON£©£¬¶ÀÁ¢Ñо¿Ëù¸ß¼¶Ñо¿Ô±£¬·ðÂÞÀï´ïÖÝÁ¢´óѧDeVoe Moore¾­¼Ãѧ½ÌÊÚ¡£ËûÔÚ±¾ÎÄÖÐÇ¿µ÷·¨ÂɵÄÑÝ»¯Óë×ÔÖΣ¬ÕýÈçËû1990ÄêµÄÖø×÷±êÌâ½ÒʾµÃÄÇÑù¡ª¡ª¡¶·¨ÂɵÄÊÂÒµ£ºÃ»Óйú¼ÒµÄÕýÒå¡·¡£ËûÔÚ¡¶·þÎñÓë±£»¤£ºÐÌÊÂ˾·¨µÄ˽ÈË»¯¼°¹²Í¬Ìå¡·£¨1998Ä꣩ÖÐÌá³ö£¬Õþ¸®ÔÚ±£»¤ÈËÃÇÃâÊÜ·¸×ïΣº¦·½ÃæÃ»ÓÐʲô³ÉЧ£¬¸ß³É±¾µÄ¹ÙÁÅÖ÷ÒåÃÔ¹¬ÎÞ·¨±£»¤ÊÐÃñ£¬È´ÈÔÈ»»ý¼«±£»¤¾¯²ìºÍÐÌÊÂ˾·¨µÄ¢¶Ï¡£¸ÃÊé´òÆÆÁË·¨ÂÉÖ´ÐкÍÕýÒå·ÖÅä¹ýÈ¥¡¢ÏÖÔÚ¡¢ÒÖ»ò½«À´Ó¦ÓÉÕþ¸®Â¢¶ÏÖ®Éñ»°£¬±íÃ÷ÈçºÎÀûÓþºÕùºÍÉú²úÁ¦À´´Ù½ø¾¯²ì¡¢·¨ÔººÍÖÆ²Ã¸üÊÊÓ¦¸öÈ˼°ÆäȨÀû±£»¤Ö®ÐèÒª¡£¡¶·¨ÂɵÄÑÝ»¯¡·£¨¼´³ö£©Ò»ÊéÊÇËû˼ÏëµÄÈ«Ãæ×ܽáºÍÉý»ª¡£²Î¼ûÆä¸öÈËÖ÷Ò³£ºhttp://garnet.acns.fsu.edu/~bbenson/¡£

*** Ðìê¿£¬Ç廪´óѧ·¨Ñ§Ôº²©Ê¿Éú£»ÐìêÀ£¬Ç廪´óѧ·¨Ñ§ÔºË¶Ê¿Éú¡£

**** ¡¶×Ô·¢Ö®³Ç¡·Ò»Êé¹²Èý±àÊ®¶þÕ¡£ÒýÑÔ£ºÂõÏòÊÐÃñÉç»áµÄÔÙÉú¡£µÚÒ»±à½¨Éè×Ô·¢Ö®³Ç¡ª¡ª×ÔÓÉ·ÅÈÎÖ÷ÒåµÄ³ÇÊй滮/ʥ·Ò×˹µÄ˽ÈËסËù£ºÍ¨¹ý˽È˹滮µÄ³ÇÊлù´¡¹¹Ôì/¹«¹²ÎïÆ·µÄ×ÔÔ¸Ìṩ£¿/ÆóÒµµÄ³ÇÊй滮£ºÖ¥¼Ó¸çÖÐÑëÖÆÔì񵂿/µÚ¶þ±à×Ô·¢Ö®³ÇµÄ·¨ÂɺÍÉç»á·þÎñ¡ª¡ªÃ»ÓÐÕþ¸®µÄÕýÒ壺ÖÐÊÀ¼ÍÅ·ÖÞÉÌÈË·¨Í¥¼°ÆäÏÖ´ú°æ±¾/18ºÍ19ÊÀ¼ÍµÄ˽È˾¯²ì/¡°Ê®¶ñ²»ÉâµÄ¾ü¶Ó¡±£º20ÊÀ¼ÍǰÃÀ¹úÓѰ®Éç»áµÄ»¥Öú´«Í³/ͨ¹ý»¥ÖúµÄÒ½ÁƱ£½¡£º²»ÁеßÓѰ®Ð­»á/×Ô·¢Ö®³ÇµÄ½ÌÓý/µÚÈý±à×Ô·¢Ö®³ÇºÍÉçÇø¡ª¡ªËùÓÐÕßÍÅÌåºÍÉçÇøÐ­Òé/ÀíÂÛÓëʵ¼ùÖÐµÄÆõÔ¼Õþ¸®/ÁÚÀï¹ØÏµµÄ˽ÈË»¯£ºÒÔ˽È˹²Í¬²Æ²úȨµÄ·ÖÇøÖÆÈ¡´úÏÖÐÐÁÚÀï¹ØÏµÖ®½¨Òé/ÍÁµØ×âÁÞ¶ÔÍÁµØÇø·ÖµÄ°¸Àý£º×¡Õ¬ËùÓÐÕßЭ»áÔÙÒ顣βÉù£ºÊг¡ÌôÕ½ÓëÕþ¸®Ê§°Ü£ºÀ´×Ô×Ô·¢Ö®³ÇµÄ½Ìѵ¡£

¸ÃÊé³ö°æºóºÃÆÀÈç³±£¬Ë¹Ì¹¸£´óѧ¾­¼Ãϵ½ÌÊÚÄÉÉ­¡¤ÂÞÉ­²®¸ñ£¨Nathan Rosenberg£©Ëµ£º¡°¡¶×Ô·¢Ö®³Ç¡·´Ó¼¸¸ö·½ÃæÀ´¿´½ÔΪһ±¾ÖØ´óÖ®×÷£¬Ò²ÊÇÒ»±¾ÖØÒªµÄÖø×÷¡£¹Ø¼üÎÊÌâÊÇÌṩһÕûÌס°¹«¹²¡±·þÎñµÄÓÅ»¯Ä£Ê½£¬°üÀ¨×¡·¿¡¢½»Í¨¡¢½ÌÓý¡¢Ò½ÁÆ¡¢¾¯²ìÒÔ¼°·¨Ôº¡£¸ÃÊéÒýµ¼ÈËÃÇÖØÐ¿¼ÂÇ£¬Í¨¹ýÊг¡±¾Î»µÄ×Ô·¢°²ÅÅ£¬±Èͨ¹ý³ÇÊй滮ÕßºÍÆäËûÏÖ´ú¸£Àû¹ú¼Òר¼ÒµÄÔ®ÖúÄܸüºÃµØÌṩÕâЩ·þÎñ¡£¡±Ò®Â³´óѧ·¨Ñ§Ôº½ÌÊÚÂÞ²®ÌØ¡¤°£Àû¿ËÉ­£¨Robert C. Ellickson£©Ëµ£º¡°¡¶×Ô·¢Ö®³Ç¡·Ò»Êé̽Ë÷ÁËÃæ¶Ô³ÇÊÐÉú»îÌôÕ½µÄµß¸²ÐÔ½øÂ·Ö®ÒýÈËÈëʤµÄÀúÊ·¡£¡±¹þÂ޵¡¤²®¶ûÂüÈÏΪ£¬¡°¡¶×Ô·¢Ö®³Ç¡·Õâ±¾¼«ÆäÖØÒªµÄÖø×÷¸æËßÎÒÃÇ£¬ÊÐÃñÉç»áÈçºÎÔø¾­Çá³µÊì·µØÍ¨¹ý־ȤÏàͶ֮È˺;ÓסÏàÁÚÖ®È˵Ä×ÔÔ¸ÁªºÏ¶øÌṩ¹«¹²ÎïÆ·£¬¶øÔÚ½ü¼¸´úÒÔÀ´£¬¹«¹²ÎïÆ·µÄÌṩÒѾ­Ô½À´Ô½ÊÜÖÆÓÚÕþ¸®µÄ³«µ¼ºÍ¹æÖÆÁË¡£¡± ¸ÃÊé±àÕß´÷ά¡¤±´ÍУ¨David T. Beito£©£¬°¢À­°ÍÂíÖÝ´óѧ½ÌÊÚ£»±ËÌØ¡¤¸ê¶Ù£¨Peter Gordon£©£¬ÄϼÓÖÝ´óѧ¾­¼Ãϵ¼°Õþ²ß¡¢¼Æ»®ºÍ·¢Õ¹Ñ§Ôº½ÌÊÚ£»ÑÇÀúɽ´ó¡¤Ëþ°ÍÂå¿Ë£¨Alexander Tabarrok£©£¬¶ÀÁ¢Ñо¿Ëù¸±Ëù³¤¼æÑо¿²¿Ö÷ÈΡ£

[1] ÕâÒ»¹ÛµãµÄÖØÒªÀýÍâÒÔ¼°ÅúÆÀ£¬²Î¼û£¬Lon Fuller,The Morality of law(New Haven:Yale University Press,1964)ºÍThe Principles of Social Order (Durham,N.C.:Duke University Press 1967)£»ÒÔ¼°F. A. Hayek, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1967) ºÍIaw,Legisation,and Liberty, Vol 1(Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1967 )¡£ÓйØÃ»Óйú¼ÒÖ§³Öʱ·¨ÂÉȨÍþÀ´Ô´Ö®ÏêϸÀíÂÛ̽ÌÖ£¬ÒÔ¼°Ïà¹ØÎÄÏ×£¬²Î¼û£¬Bruce L Benson ,¡°Customary Law as a Social Contract: International Commercial Law,¡± Constitutional Political Economy 2 (Winter 1992):1-27£¬ÒÔ¼°¡°The Impetus for Recognizing Private Property and Adopting Ethical Behavior in a Market Economy: Natural Law, Government Law, or Evolving Self-Interest,¡±Review of Austrian Economics 6 (1993): 43-80¡£

[2] ²Î¼û£¬Harold J. Berman,Law and Revolution:The Formation of Western Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1983),Lein Trakman, The Law Merchant: The Evolution of Commercial Law (Littleton, Co.:Fred B.Rotham &Co.,1983),Bruce L Benson, ¡°The Spontaneous Evolution of Commercial Law ,¡±Southern Economic Journal 55(January, 1989):644-661,Avner Greif ,¡°Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade,¡±Journal of Economic History 49 (1989): 857-882£¬ÒÔ¼°Paul R. Milgrom, Douglas C. North and Barry R. Weingast,¡°The Role of Institutions in the Revival of Trade: The Law Merchant,Private Judges and the Champagne Fairs,¡±Economics and Politics 2(March 1990):1-23¡£

[3] Berman, Law and Revolution, p.333¡£

[4] Trahman, The Law Merchant, p.13¡£

[5] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³11¡£

[6] Berman, Law and Revolution, p. 342¡£ÔÚ²»Í¬µÄµØ·½Ò»Ð©²îÒìÈÔÈ»±£ÁôÏÂÀ´ÁË£¬µ«Õâ²¢²»Òâζ×Å£¬¸Ã·¨ÂÉÖÆ¶ÈºÁÎÞЧÂÊ»òÕß·´Ó³Á˵ط½ÆçÊÓÐÔ×÷·¨¡£µÄÈ·£¬ÒÀÈ»±£ÁôµÄ¶àÑùÐÔÓ³Éä³ö²»Í¬µÄÆ«ºÃ£¬ÔÚÄÇЩÇãÏòÓÚ¾­³£³öÈë¸÷ÖÖÊг¡»ò¼¯ÕòµÄÉÌÈËÍÅÌåÖУ¬ÉÌʹßÀýºÍÖÆ¶ÈµÄ±ä»¯Ïà¶Ô¸üС£¬Òò´ËÇ¿»¯Á˶Է¢Õ¹ÖеÄÉÌ·¨Ö®ÆÕ±éÈϿɡ£²Î¼û£¬Trakman, The Law Merchant, pp.20-21¡£

[7] Trakman, The Law Merchant, p.10¡£

[8] ͬÉÏ×¢, Ò³12£»ÒÔ¼°W. Mitchell, Essay on the Early History of the Law of Mrechant (New York: Burt Franklin, 1904), p. 16¡£

[9] William C. Wooldridge, Uncle Sam, the Monopoly Man (Hew Rochelle, N.Y.:Arlington House, 1970), p. 96¡£

[10] Trakman, The Law Merchant, p. 10¡£Òà¼ûGrief,¡°Reputiation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade¡±£»ÒÔ¼°Milgrom, North, and Weingast, ¡°The Role of Institutions in the Revival of Trade¡±¡£

[11] Milgrom, North, and Weingast, ͬÉÏ×¢¡£

[12] Berman, Law and Revolution, p. 347; Mitchell, Essay on the Early History of the Law Merchant, p. 13¡£

[13] Trakman, The Law Merchant, p. 16¡£

[14] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³ 14¡£

[15] Berman, Law and Revolution, p. 341¡£

[16] William M. Landes, and Richard A. Posner, ¡°Adjudication as a Private good,¡± Journal of Legal Studies (march 1979), p. 258¡£

[17] ÉÌʰ¸¼þÖð½¥×ªÒÆÖÁ¹Ù·½·¨Ôº¿ÉÄܱíÃ÷£¬ËüÃÇÕýÔÚÌṩºÍÖ´ÐÐÒ»ÖÖ½ÏÉÌÈË·¨¡°¸üºÃµÄ¡±·¨ÂÉ¡£µ±È»£¬ÕâÒ»×ÔÔ¸µÄ×ªÒÆ°µÊ¾×Å£¬ÉÌÈËÃÇ·¢ÏÖÔËÓùٷ½·¨Ôº·ûºÏÆä×ÔÉíÀûÒæ¡£È»¶ø£¬Ðë×¢Òâ²¢·ÇËùÓеÄËßËϺÍÖ´Ðгɱ¾½Ô¿ÉÓÉËßËϷѲ¹³¥£»ÄÉ˰È˾ÍÕþ¸®·¨ÂÉÖ´ÐеÄһЩ·½ÃæÌṩÁ˲¹Ìù¡£ÓйصÄ×ÔÒæ¶¯»ú¿´À´Êµ¼ÊÉÏÊÇÉÌÈËÃÇÄܹ»½«ÉóÅкÍÖ´ÐÐËûÃÇ·¨Âɵijɱ¾²¿·ÖµØ×ª¼Þ¸øËûÈË£¬¶ø²¢·Ç¹Ù·½·¨ÔºÌṩÁ˸üºÃµÄ·¨ÂÉ¡£²Î¼û£¬Bruce L Benson, The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without the State (San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute, 1990, Chapter 3)¡£´ËÍ⣬ͨ¹ý´´ÉèÏòÍõÊÒ·¨ÔºÉÏËßµÄȨÀû£¬ÉÌÈË·¨Í¥µÄȨÍþµ±È»±»Ï÷ÈõÁË¡£

[18] ²Î¼û£¬ÈçÏÂÖø×÷Ö®ÒýÖ¤£¬Steven Lazarus et al.,Resolving Business Disputes: The Potential of Commercial Arbitration (New York: American Management Association,1965),p.18¡£

[19] Trakman, The Law Merchant, pp.26-27¡£

[20] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³27¡£

[21] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³27¡£

[22] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³24¡£

[23] Wooldridge, Uncle Sam, the Monopoly, p.99¡£

[24] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³99¡£

[25] Óйظü¶àµÄϸ½Ú£¬²Î¼û£¬Trakman, The Law Merchant; Harold J. Berman, and Felix J. Dasser,¡° The¡® New¡¯ Law Merchant and the ¡®Old¡¯ :Sources, Content, and Legitimacy,¡±in Thomas E. Carbonneau ed, Lex Mercatoria and Arbitration: A Disscussion of the New Law Merchant(Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: transnational Juris Publication, Inc., 1990)£»ÒÔ¼°Benson,¡°Customary Law as a Social Contract¡±¡£

[26] Trakman, The Law Merchant£¬Ò³3¡£

[27] ²Î¼û£¬John R. Aiken, "New Netherlands Arbitration in the 17th Century," Arbitration Journal 29 (June 1974): 145-160; Jerold S. Auerbach, Justice Without Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Bruce L. Benson, "Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitutes or Complements? An Exploration of the History of Arbitration and Arbitration Statutes in the United States," Department of Economics Working Paper No. 91-03-8, Florida State University, 1993; William C. Jones, "Three Centuries of Commercial Arbitration in New York: A Brief Survey," Washington University Law Quarterly 1956 (February 1956): 193-221; George S. Odiorne, "Arbitration Under Early New Jersey Law," Arbitration Journal 8 (1953): 117-125£¬ÒÔ¼°"Arbitration and Mediation Among the Early Quakers," Arbitration Journal 9 (1954): 161-169; and Joseph H. Smith, Colonial Justice in Western Massachusetts (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), pp. 180 and 188.

[28] Aiken£¬Í¬ÉÏ×¢£»Auerbach£¬Í¬ÉÏ×¢£»ÒÔ¼°Jones£¬Í¬ÉÏ×¢¡£

[29] Aiken£¬Í¬ÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³160¡£

[30] Jones,¡°Three Centuries of Commercial Arbitration in New York,¡±p.209¡£

[31] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³207¡£

[32] ͬÉÏ×¢¡£

[33] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³209¡£

[34] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³211¡£

[35] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³219£» Auerbach, Justice Without Law; Smith, Colonical Justice in Western Massachusetts, pp.180 and 188£»ÒÔ¼°Odiorne, ¡°Arbitation Under Early New Jersey Law¡±£¬ÒÔ¼°¡°Arbitration and Mediation Among the Early Quakers¡±¡£

[36] Auerbach£¬Í¬ÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³33¡£

[37] ¸ü¶àϸ½Ú£¬²Î¼û£¬Benson, ¡°Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitutes or Complements?¡±1698ÄêÓ¢¹úÒé»áͨ¹ýÁ˵ÚÒ»¸öÖٲ÷¨£¬¹æ¶¨ÖٲòþöÒ»µ©×÷³ö£¬ÆÕͨ·¨·¨Ôº¾Í²»µÃÒÔ·¨ÂÉ´íÎóÒÖ»òÊÂʵ´íÎóΪÓÉÍÆ·­²Ã¾ö¡£Òò´Ë£¬¸Ã·¨ÒªÇó·¨Ôº×ðÖØÖٲòþö£¬³ý·ÇËüÃÇÊÇÔÚÆÛÕ©»òÆäËû²»Õýµ±³ÌÐòµÄÇéÐÎÏÂ×÷³öµÄ¡£È»¶ø£¬¸Ã·¨²¢Î´ÍÆ·­¿É³·ÏúÐÔÔ­Ôò£¬²¢ÇÒ¸üÖØÒªµÄÊÇ£¬¸ïÃüºóÃÀ¹úµÄÆÕͨ·¨·¨ÔºÒѲ»ÔÙÊÜÓ¢¹úÖÆ¶¨·¨¾ÐÊø¡£

[38] Jones,¡°Three Centuries of Commercial Arbitration in New York,¡± p.213¡£

[39] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³212 ¡£

[40] Lazarus et al.,Resolving Business Dispute, p.27¡£

[41] ²Î¼û£¬Jacob T. Levy,¡°The Transformation of Arbitration Law 1835-1870:The Lessening of Judicial Hostility Towards Private Dispute Resolution,¡±Mimeo, Brown University, May 1993£»Óйعú¼Ò·¨Ôº²»¶Ï³¯ÏòÖÙ²ÃÑÝ»¯µÄÁ¢³¡Ö®ÌÖÂÛ£¬²Î¼û£¬Benson,¡°Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitutes or Complements?¡±¡£

[42] Jones,¡°Three Centuries of Commercial Arbitration in New York,¡±p.217¡£

[43] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³214£­215¡£

[44] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³215¡£

[45] ͬÉÏ×¢¡£

[46] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³216¡£

[47] ͬÉÏ×¢¡£

[48] ͬÉÏ×¢¡£

[49] ÀýÈ磬²Î¼û£¬Auerbach, Justice Without Law¡£

[50] Trakman, The Law Merchant, p.33¡£

[51] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³34¡£

[52] Auerbach, Justice Without Law, p.101¡£

[53] Wooldridge, Uncle Sam, the Monopoly Man, p.101¡£

[54] Jones,¡°Three Centuries of Commercial Arbitration in NewYork,¡±p.218¡£

* Ö¸20ÊÀ¼Í¡£¡ª¡ªÒëÕß

[55] Auerbach, Justice Without Law,p.113¡£

[56] Lazarus et al.,Resolving Business Dispute, p.20¡£

[57] William F. Willoughby, Principles of Judicial Administration (Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institute, 1929), pp.7-26¡£

[58] Auerbach, Justice Without Law, p.103¡£

[59] ÓйØÖٲóÉÎÄ·¨·¢Õ¹ÒÔ¼°ÂÉʦÔÚÕâÒ»¹ý³ÌÖеÄ×÷Ó㬸üÏêϸµÄÌÖÂÛ£¬²Î¼û£¬Benson,¡°Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitutes or Complements?¡±¡£

[60] Landes and Posner, "Adjudication as a Private Good," p. 247¡£ÀýÈ磬Òà¼û£¬Willoughby, Principles of Judicial Administration, p. 56; Lazarus, et al., Resolving Business Disputes, pp. 31 and 125; American Arbitration Association, Lawyers' Arbitration Letters, 1970-1979 (New York: The Free Press, 1981), p. 34; Martin Domke, Domke on Commercial Arbitration, Revised Edition by Gabriel M. Wiker (Willmette, Ill.: Gallaghen & Co., 1984), p. 27£»ÒÔ¼°John S. Murray, Alan Scott Rau, and Edward F. Sherman, Processes of Dispute Resolution: the Role of Lawyers (Westbury, N.Y.: The Foundation Press, Inc., 1989), p. 435¡£

[61] Benson, ¡°Customary Law as a Social Contract¡±£¬ÒÔ¼°Benson,¡°Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitutes or Complements?¡±¡£

[62] Wooldridge, Uncle Sam, the Monopoly Man, p.101¡£ [63] ¶ÔÖÝÖٲ÷¨ÄÚÈݼ°ÆäÓ°ÏìµÄÏêϸ·ÖÎö£¬²Î¼û£¬Benson,¡°Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitues or Complements?¡±¡£

[64] Wesley A. Sturges, A Treatise on Commercial Arbitration and Awards (Kansas City: Vernon Law Book Company, 1930)¡£

[65] Nathan Isaacs, ¡°Review of Wesley Sturges, Treatise on Commercial Arbitration and Awards,¡± Yale Law Jurnal 40(1930),p.149-151¡£

[66] Wooldridge, Uncle Sam, the Monopoly Man, p.101¡£

[67] T. S. Denenberg, and R. V. Denenberg, Dispute Resolution: Settling Conflicts Without Legal Action, Public Affairs Pamphlet No. 597 (New York: Public Affairs Committee, Inc., 1981), p. 5.

[68] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³8¡£

[69] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³10¡£

[70] ÂÉʦÒÀ¾ÝÖÝÖٲ÷¨¶ÔÖÙ²ÃÓ°ÏìµÄ¸ü¶àϸ½Ú£¬²Î¼û£¬Benson, ¡°Are Public Courts and Arbitration Substitutes or Complements?¡±¡£

[71] Gary Pruitt, ¡°California Rent-a-Judge Justice,¡±Journal of Contemporary Studies(Spring 1982): 51-64¡£

* ÃÀ¹úÖÝ·¨ÔºÏµÍ³ÖгõÉó·¨ÔºµÄ³ÆÎ½²»¾¡Ò»Ö£¬¿ÉÒÔÊÇ¡°ÏØ·¨Ôº¡±¡¢¡°µØÇø·¨Ôº¡±£¬»¹¿ÉÄÜÊÇ¡°¸ß¼¶·¨Ôº¡±£¬¡°Los Angeles County Superior Court¡±£¬¾ÍÊÇÂåɼí¶ÏصijõÉó·¨Ôº¡£¡ª¡ªÒëÕß

[72] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³51¡£

[73] Richard Koenig, ¡°More Firms Turn to Private Courtsto Avoid Expensive Legal Fights,¡±Wall Street Journal(January 1984)¡£

[74] Landes and Posner, ¡°Adjudication as a Private Good,¡±p.237; Willoughby, Principles of Judicial Administration, p.56;Lazarus Lazarus, et al.,Resolving Business Disputes, pp.31 125;Amercan Arbitration Association, Lawyers¡¯Arbitration,1970-1979, p.34;Domke, Domke on Commercial Arbitration, p.27£»ÒÔ¼°Murray, et al.,Processes of Dispute Resolution, p.435¡£ËùÓÐÕâЩ¶¼°µÊ¾×Å£¬ÌÈÈôÊÂǰÔÚºÏͬÖÐûÓÐÖÙ²ÃÌõ¿î£¬Ôò˽È˲ÃÅоͲ»ÊÇÒ»Ïî¿ÉÐеÄÑ¡Ôñ¡£Ë¾·¨Êг¡µÄ³öÏÖ¶Ô´ËÌá³öÁËÒÉÎÊ¡£

[75] ¼òÃ÷ÌÖÂÛ£¬²Î¼û£¬Denenberg and Denenberg, Dispute Resolution,p.2£¬ÏêϸÂÛÊö£¬²Î¼û£¬Fuller,The Principles of Social Order¡£

[76] Denenberg and Denenberg, Dispute Resolution,p.15¡£

[77] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³21¡£

[78] Robert W. Poole,Jr., Cutting Back City Hall(New York: Universe Books, 1978), p.55¡£

[79] Denenberg and Denenberg, Dispute Resolution, p.15¡£

[80] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³18¡£

[81] Auerbach, Justice Without Law, p.123¡£

[82] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³131¡£

[83] Roger F. Cook et al.,Neighborhood Justice Centers Fields Test-Final Evaluation Report (Washington D.C.:U.S.Department of Justice, 1980),pp.4-6¡£

[84] D.I.Sheppard, J.A.Roche, and R.A.Cook, National Evaluation of the Neighborhood Justice Centers Field Test-Interm Report(Washington D.C.:U.S. Department of Justice,1979),p.56¡£

[85] Benson, The Enterprise of Law¡£ÔÚ¼ÓÖÝÏÀ˹ËþÏØÅ©´åÁÚÀïÖ®¼ä£¬ÓÐÒ»¸öûÓйú¼ÒµÄ¾À·×½â¾öÖ®ÏÖ´úÀýÖ¤£¬²Î¼û£¬Robert C. Ellickson, Order Without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991)¡£

[86] Auerbach, Justice Without Law, p.131¡£

[87] Laura Nader, "Comment," The Pound Conference: Perspectives on Justice in the Future (St. Paul: The Pound Conference, 1979), pp. 114-119¡£

[88] Auerbach, Justice Without Law, p.131¡£

[89] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬Ò³134¡£

* ¡°±¾ÊÀ¼Í¡±Ö¸20ÊÀ¼Í¡£¡ª¡ªÒëÕß

[90] ͬÉÏ×¢£¬ÒÔ¼°Bruce L. Benson, "Reciprocal Exchange as the Basis for Recognition of Law: Examples from American History," Journal of Libertarian Studies, 10 (Fall 1991): 53-82¡£¹ØÓÚÒ»¸öÏÖ´úÅ©´åÖ®ÀýÖ¤£¬Òà¼û Ellickson, Order Without Law¡£